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9 Environmental Science Modern Methods part 1


INTRODUCTION
“Even the best curriculum and the most perfect syllabus remains dead unless quickened
into life by the right methods of teaching and the right kind of teachers.” According to
Secondary. Education Commission. As the means of reaching predetermined ends method
forms the most important link in the total teaching-learning chain. It is middle link connecting
the objectives with its value. It determines the quality of result. The Environmental Science
is a very important subject at the higher secondary level and for its teaching teacher should
have to select effective methods and effective strategies to teach them. Some important
strategies and methods are explained below:
Meaning of Teaching Strategies
“Teaching strategy is generalized plan for a lesson, which includes structure, desired
learner behavior in terms of goals of instruction and an outline of planned tactics necessary
to implement the strategy. The lesson strategy is a part of a larger development scheme of
the curriculum.” E. Stones and S. Morris.
Type of Teaching Strategy
It may be able to be classified under the following two major heads:
1. Autocratic styles
A. Lecture
B. Lesson Demonstration
C. Tutorials, and
D. Programmed Instruction
2. Permissive Styles
A. Question-Answer
B. Project Strategy
C. Review
D. Group Discussion
E. Role Playing
F. Discovery
G. Brain Storming
H. Leaderless Group
Autocratic style of teaching strategies is traditional. These strategies achieve different
objectives more than permissive styles of teaching strategies. The autocratic style strategies
are content centered, teacher remains more active, and students are passive listeners. The
autocratic teaching strategies realize cognitive and effective while permissive teaching
strategies tend to achieve effective objectives. The main emphasis is on presentation. These
strategies do not consider the student abilities, interests and personality of the learner.
There is no freedom for the learner in the teaching process. These are highly subjective and
conventional styles of teaching process.
Permissive style of teaching strategies is based on “Modern Theory of Organization
of Task and Relationship centre”. This style seems less conventional. It is mainly childcentered; the pupils largely determine content. The affective objectives are mainly achieved
by permissive style strategies. These strategies create situations for student and teacher
interaction and both remain active in teaching. Teaching is organized with the consideration
of student interest, abilities and values. These strategies encourage the creativity of the
pupils.
Importance of Instructional Strategies
1. These are highly subjective and conventional styles of teaching process.
2. Teachers are more active and students are passive listeners.
3. Teachers are free in their classroom teaching.
4. It establishes class rapport, remedial help and educational guidance to the learner.
5. It creates a new link with the previous knowledge of learner.
6. It gives more emphasis to achieve learning objectives rather than students’ interest.
7. The learning conditions and learning objectives should be achieved.
Objective of Teaching Methods
Teaching procedures in Environmental Science should be governed by the objectives of
its teaching. The specific goals or purpose as well as the nature of the content of a unit
determine the methods to be used in teaching it. Suitable methods are needed for the
achievement of comprehensive objectives of teaching Environmental Science such as to
expose the pupils to knowledge and experiences helpful in the development of understandings,
critical thinking, practical skills and interests discussed earlier. Methods also give training
in constructive thinking, reasoning and critical judgment. The goal expectations in the
teaching of Environmental Science involve deeper and extensive participation of students.
Besides the lecture or question-answer method, students should be exposed to a variety of
learning experiences involving book learning, observation, interviewing, surveying,
interpreting, reviewing, recording, reporting, and evaluating. Learning experiences should
be geared to the type of growth and behavior changes to be brought about in the student
and the need to make him an enlightened, discriminating, dynamic, productive and democratic
citizen.
Need of Modern Methods in Environmental Science
1. There are many roads to successful learning to be tried for meeting particular
needs and situations. To make the subject interesting, vital and living the teacher
should also use permutations and combinations of methods, devices, and techniques
for example to lend color to class teaching. He may use lecture or discussion method
or a combination of these two. The teacher should be conversant with a variety of
methods of Environmental Science.
2. Different lessons or units should be taught by different methods of teaching. It can
be very monotonous to use the same methods for every circumstance. In the past
few decades a tremendous increase in equipment materials, means and teaching
procedures has been witnessed. These should be utilized to provide variety and
color to teaching Environmental Science. To create and maintain their interest and
avoid monotony children should be exposed to varied experiences.
3. No single method can be the best for all situations, and for all teachers and pupils.
The suitable method should emerge out of the abundance of information and skill
of the teacher. It should be harmonized with the content to be taught. Every
teacher of Environmental Science should be familiar with the different means for
reckoning the desired ends.
Characteristics of Good Teaching Method
1. Group Related Experiences and Activities
A good method should provide a group of related experiences and activities, arranged
on an individual as well as group basis, particularly designed to produce changes’ in terms
of knowledge, understanding, habits, attitudes and skills, and behavior of the students.
2. Scope for Creative Expression
A good, method should provide scope for the creative expression of the child’s
individuality.
3. Interests in Content
Rather than be a mechanical device for passing on facts and figure a good method
should rouse a large range of interests in the minds of the students.
4. Shift in emphasis
Through purposeful, concrete and realistic situations a good method should shift
emphasis from verbalism and memorization to learning.
5. Training in Self-Study
A good method should train the, students in the techniques of self-study and the methods
of acquiring knowledge through personal effort or intuition.
6. Stimulation and Awakening Interest in Study
A good method should stimulate the desire for further study and exploration. A good
method should awaken interest in the materials and techniques of Environmental Science.
It should give pupils peep into the workshop of the Environmental Science to enable them
to know the varied interpretations of events and clash of characters.
DIFFERENT METHODS OF TEACHING ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
After selecting the content or subject matter, the teacher should see that the subject is
properly taught, learnt and experienced, with the application of most effective methods of
teaching. As methods are closely related to aims and objectives of teaching a particular
subject the major specific aims of teaching Environmental Science must be remembered.
There are:
1. Lecture Method
2. Lecturer cum Discussion Method
3. Project Method
4. Source Method
5. Socialized Recitation
6. Supervised Study
1. LECTURE METHOD
The lecture method means, “Teaching by means of the spoken word”. It means a formal
talk by the teacher. It may be known as “Telling of Story or Conversational method” with
primary and lower middle classes. With higher secondary and college classes it may be
known as “Lecture Method”.
The lecture method may be safely used at higher and college stages. Even at this stage
the lecture must not be dry but well prepared and well presented to stimulate interest and
mental activity of the students. The students should be prompted to ask questions at the
end of the lecture. Their questioning is a sure proof of the success of the lecture.
Lecture Method at School Level
Based on traditional authority lecturing is a time-honored device for imparting
knowledge. But it has fallen into very ill repute as a method for secondary school pupils. A
good teacher of secondary school is careful not to talk too much. He does not dominate the
learning process. Assuming major share of the responsibility for planning and guiding a
number of activities, experiences and situations the teacher provides functional learning for
the group of pupils in his class. For carefully selecting the proper techniques to meet the
needs, interests and capacities of his pupils at a particular time and particular situations
a lecture may be taken as a technique of description, explanation and clarification.
Utilization of Lecture Method
1. Ineffective Method
A spoken word is always more effective than a printed one. By his tone, gesture and
facial expression the teacher can indicate the exact meaning that he wishes to convey
dramatizing a scene, a story or a message, he wishes to give but he can add color and
vividness to his talk, which a printed book cannot do.
2. Quickly Repeated and Modified
If a teacher feels that his talk is not being followed or appreciated by his pupils, he may
repeat the ideas or expand arid modify his statement. He should never like, to “talk over
the head” of his pupils.
3. Experiences in Learning by Hearing
In democratic countries children in schools must be trained for adult life so that they
may participate fully and effectively in affairs of national and international importance as
democratic citizens. Lectures and talks play an important part in adult life whether one is
a leader or follower. Children are to be prepared from the school stage for this through
occasional talks and interesting lectures arranged for all types of school children.
4. Saving of Time and Energy
Sometimes because of their complicated nature, facts of Environmental Science are not
clear to students in their textbooks as details are seldom given and sometimes interpretations
may also be wrong in textbooks. The students may spend a lot of their valuable time and
energy in going through other sources for the clarification of such complicated points. Here
a well-presented lecture by the teacher is most helpful.
5. Stimulation for Students
As a lecture, demands a lot of preparation on the part of the teacher, its advantages
are transferred to the class as a whole. Teachers own preparation, his enthusiasm and his
interest stimulate good students. They may now like to pursue projects, problems and other
such activities to gain “more and more knowledge.
Objectives of Lecture Method
1. To stimulate students.
2. To clarify concepts.
3. To supplement the knowledge, of pupils.
4. To sum up the findings of pupils.
5. To prepare the students to undertake an assignment, a project or an activity.
Limitations of Lecture Method
1. Unnatural Way of Learning
Not usually considered to be a natural way for the pupils to learn Lecture Method
places them in the position of passive listeners. During the course of the talk, they may
wander off to some more pleasant thoughts and may not attend to the talk at all.
2. Requires Trained Teachers
Many teachers do not know how to lecture in an effective way. They cannot prepare and
deliver well-connected and relevant talks on the topic given in the textbook. Only trained
teachers can succeed in this method.3. A Heavy Teaching Load on Teachers
A teacher who is required continuously teach in the school from the first period up to
the last and not lecture in each period. He will not have the capacity to prepare so many
simple and interesting lectures each day. It is physically possible for him to speak continuously
for four or five hours a day. Hence, lecturing period should be very limited.
4. Harmful Extensive Use
The lecture method tends to substitute the teacher for the textbook is used extensively.
Only occasional and informal talks may be desirable for realizing definite purposes in view.
5. Monotonous and Dullness
Only exceptional teachers can stimulate interest through their talks at all grade levels.
To avoid dullness and to give effectiveness to the lesson they use a variety of methods and
not only one or two of them. The lessons may become dull and dry if only the lecture method
is used.
Effectiveness of Lecture Method
As lecturing is an art, its successful performance depends upon the teacher’s knowledge
and upon his awareness of interest and motivation. Primarily meant to reinforce key ideas
and facts and to place them in a context of thought a lecture seeks to present a whole out
of many related fragments of information obtained piecemeal by other means. People flock
by thousands to listen to interesting, fascinating, inspiring, informative and exciting lectures.
Similar type of talks should be presented in the classroom to ensure success. A teacher
should follow these points:
1. Giving background of a topic.
2. Giving as over-view of a large unit.
3. Creating interest in the people.
4. Explaining and correcting some faulty ideas or introducing an intelligent assignment.
Delimitation of Lecture Method
1. Sometimes, the teacher can give a hint about some topic or unit to be developed
in some later lecture. Pupils, thus, can be led to anticipate a lecture with eagerness.
2. The teacher should prepare a synopsis of the lecture and give it to the pupils before
lecturing. Besides saving the teacher from pointless digression it will help the
pupils to pay undivided attention to the lecture.
3. While delivering the lecture teacher should speak clearly and slowly so that the
pupils may keep pace with him. He should talk to the students rather than lecture
to a class. Rise and fall in his voice is also necessary to lay emphasis on a point
and also to attract the pupils. Frequent but natural changes of positions help him
to feel at ease, and to ensure that every member of the class gets an equal opportunity
to see and hear.
4. Lecture should be full of humor enlivened by analogies, comparisons, illustrations
and anecdotes, which bear upon the topic. The lecture is made interesting by aids
such as pictures, films, filmstrips, slides, diagrams, etc.
5. Lecture may be followed by a written test to measure the success or otherwise of
the lecture. The lecture is successful if the pupils have learnt well. The teacher can
revise his methods if the lecture does not seem to affect.
Suggestions
Lecture method is a very effective method but it has own limitation after some changing
and innovation according to Indian schools we can use this method effectively. Lecture
should be subject based and it should be in limited time. Listener should be given time to
think and they should ask the questions from time to time it means the listener should
participate in the lecture. Presentation should be effective and audio-visual should be used
during the lecture.


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8 Environmental Science : Field Trip part 2


Advantages of Utilizing Environment Resources in Environmental Science
1. Natural way of imparting education. A study of the Environment is useful for
imparting education in a natural way. Proceeding from the known to the unknown
and from the near to the distant it is natural process of establishing relationship,
particularly suitable to young students.
2. Growth of new interests. A survey of the Environment and a study of its problems,
provide opportunities for the growth of new interests, which are natural and creative,
not imposed from outside but developed from within.
3. Choice of vocation. Study of Environment offers a wide choice of vocation to school
children who observe various groups of people in the Environment engaged in
different economic activities for the welfare of the Environment. This observation
creates interest and urge in the minds of some boys to explore industries, means
of transport and communication, trade, commerce, business, agriculture and so on
in their adult life. Some girls may feel inclined to home nursing, preparation and
distribution of food, teaching or religion. Thus, a choice of vocation for adult lifemay be made by students right from the primary or secondary school stage.
4. Social use of leisure. Interested in the Environment outside the school, the student
would spend his spare time in the study of some specific portion of the Environment
life. Carrying this interest beyond school days, he may acquire a technique for
using the increased leisure at his disposal creatively and usefully.
5. Development of skill and attitudes. After studying the problems of one’s Environment,
one may think of development of one’s city, town or countryside. The students may
grow into useful citizens, anxious of tackling social problems: They may build, a
sense of values and take pride in participating in their own Environment life.
Friendships and appreciations may develop. Skills may be fostered. A sense of
security may give a sense of pride in one’s Environment past achievements and a
reasonable degree of faith in its future possibilities. Emotional values arise from a
sense of attachment to the Environment.
Suggestion
Environment experience enrich social study instruction, in order to achieve the purpose
of Environmental Science, the child must become a real part of the Environment in which
he lives, interact with it and contribute to it. He must become a responsible member of
Environment with civic attitudes and ideals compatible with the spirit of democracy. Again,
venturing into the Environment, gives children an opportunity to observe and to participate
in the basic human activities that characterize living in the social group under the careful
guidance of the school and of cooperating Environment groups and field trip is the best way
to develop these type of skill in the students at school level.
QUESTION
1. How can the environment enrich and support in the learning of environmental science in
schools?
2. Explain the importance of good environment, home and school relationship.
3. What are the duties of the environmental science teacher in this regard? Explain in your
own words.
4. Discuss the ways and means to arrange a field trip in the secondary school students of class
VIth.
5. What information would you collect to acquaint your students with the life of the local
environment and how would you collect it?


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8 Environmental Science : Field Trip part 1

Introduction
Today, educationists have come to realize that the immediate Environment is a wonderful
curriculum laboratory providing extremely dynamic, interesting and real life opportunities
for learning. In its historical records every Environment has the stories of people and
resources woven into the pattern of national development. Basic social processes and problems
operate in every Environment in action for or against. As we investigate social problems
they become concrete in our own communities. Thus, the Environment provides concrete
data on cultural, industrial, political and geographical facts and relationships. As these data
are tangible, seeable and describable the school should take itself to the Environment,
regard it as laboratory, discover its resources, understand its culture, appreciate its problems
and also suggest solutions to these problems. Through the use of resource people, field trips,
environment surveys, service projects, etc. it should open doors for experience for a child to
have knowledge about the factories and farms, social agencies and museums, council sessions
and union meetings.
The school and the Environment must work together in the process of education in a
co-operative and collective quest. In the absence of this living, dynamic relationship between
the two, education will be anemic, unreal, and unable to make any abiding impact on the
mind and character of children. The life of the Environment is powerfully influenced by
social purposes the techniques of production, knowledge and culture. Not able to keep pace
with these changes and adjust its programmers to them the school becomes an outdated,
backward looking agency. Modern school cannot be an island in the midst of the Environment.
It must enrich the Environment and the Environment must support it. The two-way traffic
should not only be possible but also pleasant and useful.
“Let us study the Environment, use the Environment, serve the Environment and
involve the Environment in the educational process.” Let Environment Education reform
shall start with the relining of the school to Environment and the restoring the intimate
relationship with the environment.
Methods of Utilizing Environment Resources
There are basically two ways in which the teacher may make use of environment
resources—
A. Taking the school to the Environment
B. Bringing some of the Environment to the school
A. METHODS OF TAKING THE SCHOOL TO THE ENVIRONMENT
The emotions of children are most easily reached not by words but by sights and
sounds. This is possible through field trips, surveys, camping, service projects, etc.
1. Field Trips
Environment Education teaching programmers are not complete without a field trip.
Field trips may be undertaken for securing information, changing at des awakening interest,
developing appreciation, promoting ideals, enjoying new experiences. Initiating a unit of
study they can be a part of the core of it or they can give it the finishing touch. They are
a means of getting first-hand knowledge and confirming and supplementing second-hand
knowledge. They are a means for sharpening observation, testing principles and doing
everything, which Environmental Science requires.
Types of Field Trips
1. Complex undertakings—These require elaborate transportation, full-day planning,
and additional adult helpers. These longer trips to historical sites and special
events beyond the local Environment have exciting destinations to be explored for
problem-solving and project executing the offer valuable opportunities for observation
of the easily planned visits to factories, radio stations, newspaper plants, wholesale and retail establishments, libraries and the like.
2. Simple undertaking—These may be embarked at the moment of conceiving the
idea—the walk around the block to see nature and man getting ready for winter,
the Journey to the neighboring farm, the walk through the park to gather some
needed specimens etc.
Uses of Field Trips
(i) Stimulating imagination and laming through sensory perceptions—Some examples
are the taste of fresh milk, the breathtaking heat of a glass furnace, the metallic
hum of a weaving room, the sight of real things in the real world of adults.
(ii) Integrating classroom instruction—This is done by exposing the artificiality of
traditional subject-matter divisions and enabling the pupils to view facts and forces
as they exist in their everyday relationship in living communities.
(iii) Environment Realization through the field trips the student may come to realize
Environment in ways different from bookish laming. They may come to know, see
and feel their Environment as a way of life, “acting with vividness”
(iv) Laming the art of living with others—Traveling in the same conveyances, sharing
rooms, sitting at the same table, participating in the same experiences are helpful
on marking. Character qualities and defects come to the surface.
(v) Expanding emotional and intellectual horizons—This may be done making us
acquainted with people whose manner, customs, living standards, outlook and
interests may be quite different from our own.
Procedure of Field Trip
1. Preparation
A field trip should be planned democratically, organized properly, and executed carefully.
Permitting our pupils an immediate reconciliation with “life in the round” requires a preface
and follow-up connected with and extend to classroom study. It should be much more than
“going to places and seeing things.”
2. Objective
Every pupil, as well as the teacher, should become fully aware of the objective why this
particular trip is being planned, and of how it is related to his own classroom experiences
and activities.
3. Guidance
Appropriate audio-visual aids may be used both for initial motivation and for general
orientation to what will be seen on the trip itself. It will be better if the teacher suggests
guide questions, which the pupils might put, while approaching Environment leaders from
whom they want useful information about the various aspects of Environment life. Major
purposes should be clarified and made specific.
4. Information
The teacher should be thoroughly familiar with the best route, bus stops provisions for
guide service, things to be seen and done by the group, aspects or phases of the resource
centre to be stressed or ignored, eating arrangements, time needed at each stage of the trip,
etc.
5. Definite follow-up activities
These also form an integral part Utilizing Environment Resources in Teaching
Environmental Science of any well-arranged trip. They may take the form of reading books
on the places observed, writing reports or descriptive accounts, preparing scrap-books, panel
or forum discussions.
6. Evaluation
Trips should be evaluated in terms of the originally established purposes. Mistakes and
difficulties should be diagnosed; the conduct of the group should be discussed. The letters
of thanks should be written to the persons concerned.
ENVIRONMENT RESOURCES
Environment Surveys
Environment surveys provide excellent educational experience to senior pupils. They
constitute an organized and systematic method for an accurate determination of social or
physical data.
1. Surveys foster comprehensive understanding of Environment structure and processes
in their everyday operation, interaction and complexity.
2. They are extremely useful in stimulating depth of insight into vital Environment
problems, which should be met.
3. They suggest possibilities for student participation in the affairs of the Environment.
Such constructive participation imparts training to the pupils in democratic
citizenship.
4. They develop awareness of human inter-dependence and of the practical necessity
of general civic cooperation in carrying on successful individual group living.
5. Existing conditions can be critically examined and the way it is prepared for superior
citizenship.
Scope of Environment surveys
1. Any aspect of the Environment, which has meaning for young people.
2. Past history of the locality, the social institutions, the customs, the traditions, the
conventions, the ceremonies, the folk ways, the folk songs, and folk stories.
3. Problems of the Environment such as the problems of housing, health, sanitation,
employment, taxes, traffic is some problems in which pupils will be interested.
Use of Environment Surveys
1. Procedure
Environment surveys can be useful only if they are conducted properly. The actual
survey should be preceded by much discussion and framing of questions, for the best results
are obtained, when the investigators have got warmed up to problems and seek answers and
solutions to questions that have stirred in their minds.
2. Teachers
They should possess definite awareness of directions and possibilities before the group
undertakes such explorations. They should spend as much time as possible in personal
observations of the Environment in order to get the feel of it.
3. The interest of the pupil
The -teacher should arouse interest by relating the proposal for a survey with factors
that touch the life of the pupils. He should see that survey has its basis in the good and bad
achievements of people. Instead of starting with statistical summaries he should start with
people.
4. Objectives preparation
(i) The purpose of the survey must be made clear.
(ii) The problem must be properly analyzed.
(iii) Practical limits to the survey should be set.
(iv) Techniques to be used for collecting data should be decided upon.
(v) Data once gathered should be verified.
(vi) Collected data should be recorded for future use
5. Teacher’s attitude
The teacher should have an encouraging attitude, never an “I have been through all
this before” attitude. The teacher and pupils should work co-operatively together in a spirit
of shared research. Environment survey ought not to be a one-man job. The entire staff on
a continuing basis should carry it on co-operatively, year after year. The pupils and the
teachers can approach local experts, old residents and social workers by collecting data.
Various types of important persons can be interviewed; places of interest can be visited.
6. Resources
The resources, uncovered in the survey, should be grouped in a logical way such as local
industries, places of historical interest, governmental agencies, civic establishments, places
of geographic importance, – persons to interview, persons of cultural significance and similar
categories.
3. School camping
The drift to cities and the rapid tempo of modern living is creating a need for developing
a closer relationship between human beings and natural resources. Called a classroom in
the woods, the camp is a part of the larger Environment. The outdoor environment, in and
around the camp, offers tremendous possibilities for true education. The opportunities to
learn, work and play amidst the natural resources of the area stimulate interest and concern
for the protection and wise use of the natural resources of the Environment.
Advantages of School Camping
1. Learning by doing
School camping encourages direct learning experiences and has potential life-situations
that are conducive to the most effective teaching methods, through learning by doing, seeing,
hearing, testing, smelling and feeling with a minimum of answers given by teachers and
resource leaders.
2. Miniature environment
The school camp is a miniature Environment with the campers and teachers as citizens.
Many of the problems, faced by the Environment are inherent in the camp social as the
handling, preparation and eating of food, sanitation, sewage disposal, housing health habits;
social and cultural differences and the process of representative government.
3. Democratic group life
Camping experience, is democratic group living, which proves useful in inculcating
good qualities in the pupils. It enables the pupils to understand the physical environment
and to use natural resources wisely. It provides additional real situations including workexperiences, where may be applied many of the ski1I and attitudes developed in the classroom.
4. Duration and types
Duration of the camping will depend upon the age of the pupils. Camping can be taken
during school time for a one-week period, two weeks or a longer period. Similarly, the types
and patterns of camping will vary according to the .age of the pupils. Appropriate activities
can be taken up by the campers depicting the, folklore and history of the area, Indian life,
transportation, correction of soil erosion, excavation of relics, etc.
5. Environment Service Project
The pupils for civic welfare involving individual activity of an integrated mental, physical,
emotional can take up Environment Service projects and spiritual nature, Service-projects
are of educational value to the pupil as well as to society.
Examples of Service Projects
1. Social service among the backward population of the town. This includes cleanliness,
‘anti-mosquito campaigns, bathing young children, attending on the sick.
2. School labour service being organized on special occasions. These may be Republic
day, Independence Day, Gandhi Jayanti and Gandhiji’s Death Anniversary. Activities
like planting of trees, road repairs and erection of platforms, cleaning of drains,
digging of manure pits and drain, may be taken up.
3. Animal welfare. This may be done through provision of water facilities, fodder and
medical aid.
4. Beautification of villages. This may be done through’ planting of trees, laying out
of avenues, clearing up of public paces like streets, temples, drains, etc.
5. Relief Parties. Relief parties consisting of teachers and pupils may go out in the
service of the Environment at times of natural emergencies such as floods, epidemics,
fire, earthquakes, etc., They may leave their classrooms to plant trees in out-of the
way places of the Environment. They may help the Environment on fairs, festivals,
and elections. They may undertake anti-mosquito campaigns, attend the sick, etc.,
or work on fund raising for the welfare of the poor.
Advantages of Environment Service Projects
1. They lift education from the dull routine of leading each generation in the footsteps
of its predecessor, to earnest yet joyous adventures in cooperative welfare.
2. They help in raising the status of the pupils. Their all-round growth and development
is stimulated. Service projects help in making world citizens out of provincial
youngsters because they lift the imagination from personal matters of the moment
of the enduring life concerns of all peoples everywhere.
3. Children have a hunger for participation, which may be fed by experience.
Schoolroom walls should disappear. The school and Environment must combine to
meet the challenges of the crises that may beset the Environment so often.
Precautions in Use of Environment Projects
1. Service projects undertaken by the school should not be too complex, costly,
dangerous, involved or delicate. These should be discovered through Environment
surveys and other informational learning activities.
2. Education weeks, clean-up weeks and youth weeks, projects in public safety, civil
beauty, health, agricultural and industrial improvement, local history and protection
of resources are some of the projects through which the pupils and Environment
can mutually benefit.
3. Teachers of foresight and patience shall do much to provide functional, realistic
and democratic education through such Environment service programmers.
4. Service projects must be planned, executed and evaluated with extreme care.
Form of Environment Project Information Card
Type:
Data needed:
Person to call:
Equipment needed:
Expenses:
Age of children:
Educational value:
Length of time:
Comment:
B. METHODS OF BRINGING THE ENVIRONMENT TO THE SCHOOL
1. Lectures by resource persons
People as well as books are desirable sources of information and inspiration. In every
Environment no matter how small or isolated, the scores of person of rich and varied
background, who can open doors to vivid learning experiences? These include the banker,
the doctor, the engineer, the merchant, the artist, the sarpanch, the municipal commissioner
and the editor. These are Environment’s human resources, which can be utilized by the
enterprising teacher to enrich and vitalize the school programmed. These distinguished men
are resource persons who can explain to students their own important role in the Environment
and services rendered by them to Environment in the different directions. Important persons
from other towns, states and countries can also be invited to create better understanding
of different types of people. This will help students identify themselves with other people
and their problems.
Lectures by resource persons provide the students opportunities for developing social
skills in real life-situations such as letter writing, making introductions, receiving guests,
carrying on conversations, listening attentively and leading discussions.
Form of Data regarding the resource persons Name:
Address and phone:
Subject:
Has child in school- Yes/No
Class:
Comment:
2. Parent-teacher associations
It has been well said that people “care when they share”. Parent-teacher associations
create a constructive involvement of parents in the school policy and programmed planning,
execution and evaluation. They co-operate in making the school a real Environment centre,
to locate and list resource visitors to the classroom, to assist with field trips and surveys and
to develop the Environment programmed generally. Parents’ participation in the school
programmed is also an intrinsically rewarding process for them. They know what is going
on in the school and what is expected of their wards. When the parents of the children in
his charge appreciate the work of a teacher, it gives him encouragement and inspires him
towards better and greater efforts. Thus, parent-teacher associations serve as two-way
channels of communication between school and Environment.
In these associations, parents meet the pupils in the school and relate their experiences.
Their success serves, as mottos and failures as eye-openers for the pupils. When they ‘talk’
to children in the school the gulf between and Environment is bridged.
The experiences from the parents may be used in socio-drama in which children play
the role of parents and other important characters of the Environment. The characters acted
out by the children can be made use of in teaching to give factual information regarding
skills, biographical comparisons, local customs and individual’s peculiarities. It can be a rich
source of conveying social, economic and moral values.
3. Social service activities
The school furniture; the rooms, the playgrounds, the school hall, the school gymnasium
and audio-visual aids may be lent to the adult Environment for purposes of education and
recreation. School can be made the centre of social education. Bulletin Boards may be set
up, containing daily news and other useful information about the local Environment in
particular and the country in general. .
4. Celebration of festivals and national days
Environmental Science teaching can be improved with the help of fairs, festivals and
national days celebrated in the Environment. Every child is told about the significance of
these social events, which provide opportunities for dynamic, interesting and real life learning.
Celebrations of the birth and death anniversaries of great men like Janm-Ashtami, Good
Friday, Easter Day, Shabe Barat, Id-ul-Zuha, etc, make the children familiar with the noble
ideas and deeds of the great men. These can tell the children about the different religions
and the beliefs of India. Familiarity with them can develop in the children a noble ideal of
toleration and a spirit of accommodation. Cultural festivals like Raksha Bandhan may help
to give an insight to the children into Indian culture. Festivals like Lohri and Basant
Panchami, national days and U.N. Day, Human Rights Day and Red Cross Day may develop
international understanding and make the children understand the life of human beings
allover the world. Celebration of Children’s day may enable them to realize their own
charter of rights. Observance of Social Education Day may show them the magnitude of
illiteracy in our country.
5. Local fairs and festivals
A number of local fairs and festivals are celebrated in every locality. These can enlighten
the pupils about the local traditions and local customs. Interesting talks may be arranged
on how to celebrate local fairs.
6. Talks on National and International Problems
The school authorities may arrange talks on current problems of national and
international interest. Members of the Environment may be cordially invited to listen and
participate in the discussion.
7. Financial aid by the Environment members
Well-to-do-members of the Environment may be asked to help the school enterprise
financially.
8. Apprenticeship
Local trades can provide apprenticeship experiences to the students. The Role of Teacher
in liaising Environment Resources the role of the teacher for the proper utilization of the
Environment resources is very important. There is always a likelihood of the existence of
evil trends like favoritism, nepotism, dishonesty, hypocrisy, etc. in the Environment life.
The teacher should bring home to the pupils the idea that children should study the
Environment life, and fight these evil trends. The teacher should make a wise and judicious
study of Environment life to build reasonable pride on its past achievements, and faith in
its future possibilities. He is required to make the pupils alert about the processes of the
Environment. He must develop the right attitudes towards the Environment local, national
and international. By displaying initiative and resourcefulness, foresight and patience to,
build the Environment understanding of the pupils, he can prepare them to be worthy
members of the Environment.


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7 Human Population and Environment part 5

Information and Electronic Revolution
With the beginning of the electronic age in recent years, Our world has become a place
where information and communication are regarded as the most valuable resources. Our
world has now shrunk to a ‘global village’ and we now have access to places our grandparents
didn’t know existed. Information from cosmopolitans to unexplored frontiers are all now
available at a drop of a hat, it’s just a matter of mouse-click. Data flows at the speed of light
in today’s wired world, or shall, we say the wireless, paperless and non-messy world. The
advent of the Internet has, in a way, brought continents together once again.
Modern technology has also minimized our utilization of resources; e.g. today’s,
sophisticated engineering has replaced the blind usage of metals in every production. Thanks
to the marvel of lightweight alloys and composite building materials, automobiles now
require half as much metal as they typically used to do a generation ago. Today 1,000 soft
drinks cans are manufactured with around 6 kg of aluminium, which once used to require
50 kg of steel. In the 1970’s, when the fear of an impending shortage of metals gripped the
world, countries like the United States began stockpiling essential minerals to keep their
resource inventory up-to-date. Copper for electric wiring, telephone cables, and electric
motors were in short supply. But then glass-fibre optic cables, ceramic magnets, microwave
relay systems and satellite communication networks were invented. We now have a copper
surplus.
Similarly, technology has also cut down our fuel consumption. Diesel engines replaced
coal-based steam engines in locomotives, which were, further replaced by more efficient and
pollution-free electric engines. The popularity of high-mileage yielding, fuel-efficient vehicles
have made the gasoline guzzling vehicles obsolete in the market. Such advancements in the
field of information technology have made distance between two places immaterial. Today,
people can communicate via teleconference and transmit data through fax machines and
computer networks, and save precious time & fuel wasted earlier in traveling for meetings
and business appointments. It is no longer necessary for all workers to commute to an office
building in the congested city to do their work. Increasingly, workers have home offices
linked electronically to co-workers, clients, libraries, databases, and business opportunities
elsewhere in the world. Commercial establishments are moving away from the brick-andmortar set-ups to more affordable, cost-efficient, far-reaching virtual offices on the Internet.
Suggestions
Almost every country in the world is spending more & more in the information technology.
Just-in-time delivery systems and recycling further reduce the amount of virgin materials
we use. We will probably never reach a point at which we don’t need to extract resources
from nature, but we may greatly lower our consumption rate as well as the rate at which
we produce wastes and pollution. This would surely have important environmental benefits.
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the population growth and population explosion? Explains.
2. What is the relation between the environment and human health?
3. Write about the human rights and value education in 500 words.
4. How we can prevent the HIV/AIDS in the world?
5. What is the Role of information echnology in environment and human health and how it
helps the population?

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7 Human Population and Environment part 4

Civil rights are based on positive law: they are derived from laws and judicial decisions.
Civil or legal rights are those granted by a government.
The entitlements are defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by
the United Nation’s General Assembly on Dec. 10, 1948, as “a common standard of
achievement for all people and nations”. It urged the right to political, economic, social and
cultural self-determination the right to peace, the right to live in a healthful and balanced
environment and the right to share in the Earth’s resources.
Here, we are dealing with that part of Human natural rights which encompasses
protection of environmental issues as these ultimately govern human health and survival:
(i) The right to life.
(ii) The right to an adequate standard of living and social security.
(iii) The right to education.
(iv) For children, the right to freedom from exploitation.
(v) The right of access to health-care services, with States aiming to reduce infant and
child mortality and abolish traditional practices prejudicial to health.
(vi) The right of access to clean air to breathe.
(vii) The right of access to drink-clear and clean water.
(viii) The right to live in noise pollution free environment.
(ix) The right of access to gifts of nature/ resources.
(x) The right to live in a disease free environment.
VALUE EDUCATION
Aims of Health Education
The aims for community health education are as follows:
(i) Healthy practices in day-to-day living should be inculcated among the children
from a very early age. This is how they will be able to understand the importance
of health, hygiene and sanitation. .
(ii) The knowledge about our body and various organs of our body and their functions
helps a person to understand the disease, its causes and common ailments.
Such factors which affect the health standards like smoking, eating tobacco, drug
addiction intake of liquor etc., can be checked by resorting to some law and
amendments to Improve the health standards. .
(iii) In order to create a clean environment in a city or town, people should be encouraged
and awareness be created. Clean and safe drinking water system, good sanitary
lavatories be provided at crowded places.
(iv) Proper arrangements for providing better health services to the people should be
ensured and they should be introduced to various governmental health programmes
like mother and child welfare, child welfare services, family planning, etc.
(v) Training programmes for officers, health workers, private doctors, nurses, midwives,
etc. should be undertaken from time to time.
(vi) Health education can be imparted in an effective manner by personal contact
programmes.
(vii) Personal hygiene, regular exercise and rest, importance of nutritive foods, ventilation
and its effect on health, clean sanitary environment, causes of pollution and its
prevention are some of the general topics for health education.
(viii) Practical knowledge should be provided about communicable diseases, serious health
problems and first aid and emergency services.
Principles of Health Education
Every individual learns and understand some thing from his culture and social
background. Based on school health programme adult-education programme is planned
accordingly. Before understanding various teaching methods one should know the principles
behind learning. These principles are as follows:.
(i) Every individual has learning capacity throughout his life.
(ii) Learning capacity is not affected by advancing age of an individual, but by lack of
interest and desire for learning.
(iii) For learning the same material, all individuals will not learn the same way. This
variation is due to the background experiences and individual’s circumstances and
exposure.
(iv) Individuals own effort will play a significant role in making a change in habits and
concepts. Learning is not the outcome of one individual saying something to other
individual, but it is learnt through his own efforts and willingness.
(v) An individual learns for love, satisfaction. and basic human needs of survival, food
and social approval. .
(vi) People learn faster when they are acquainted with the objectives and goals. Means
of achieving those goals and use the resources properly should be clear.
(vii) An individual take an appropriate time to learn something new, so one should be
given enough time to absorb what he has learnt.
Purification of water at domestic level
Purification of water at domestic level can be achieved by the following methods:
1. Distillation
2. Boiling
3. Filtration
4. Chemical method of sterilization
5. Ultra-violet sterilization.
(i) Distillation: In the process of distillation water is heated and evaporation takes
place, whereby water changes back to water when cooled. This process is called
condensation. The condensed water is the purest form of water, free from microbes
and impurities.
(ii) Boiling: It is boiled for ten minutes to kill the microbes present in it and also
removes the temporary hardness of water.
(iii) Filtration: Different varieties of filters are used to purify the water at domestic
level.
Chemical methods for water sterilization
(i) Aluminium sulphate: It is largely used to purify muddy water.
(ii) Chlorine: Chlorine gas or tablet is added to destroy disease-producing germs. It
is a very cheap and convenient method.
(iii) Potassium permanganate: It oxidises the organic matter and destroys 98% of
the microorganisms in four to six hours.
(iv) Purification by the use of ultra-violet rays: Ultra-Violet rays have the power
of destroying microorganisms from the water without any chemical change. They
exert their action only when the water is fairly clear and bright.
VENTILATION
Ideal ventilation is possible only when there is sufficient pure air. Ventilation is defined
as the “Science of maintaining atmospheric conditions which are comfortable and suitable
to the human body.” Ventilation incorporates comfortable and appropriate balance of gases,
also optimum temperature adequate humidity, movement or flow of air and free from disease
producing microorganisms.
(a) Internal Ventilation
Proper ventilation of the rooms is known as ‘internal ventilation. Lack of efficient and
adequate ventilation leads to many discomforts and diseases. When the carbon-dioxide
concentration exceeds 0.04% and reaches 0.06% then the air in the room gets suffocating.
Every person needs 3000 cu feet of air every hour and if the impurities in the air exceed
0.02%, the air is regarded as impure and unhealthy.
(b) External Ventilation
Fresh air flows into the house from the surroundings and open space. This type of
ventilation is known as external ventilation. This is ensured by making the streets wide and
straight, providing open space, parks and gardens.
Artificial Ventilation
Artificial ventilation is easily controlled and, installed. The means of artificial ventilation
are coolers, air conditioner, which are more frequently, used equipments. Humidifiers and
dehumidifiers are used where there is problem of humidity. Exhaust fans also play an
important role in bringing in fresh air and flushing out polluted and impure air.
Inadequate Ventilation and Health
Inadequate ventilation has following effect on the occupants of the room:
(i) Lack of oxygen leads to early fatigue and reduces alertness.
(ii) Results in sweating, heat exhaustion and faintness.
(iii) Foul odours from skin, mouth, stomach and clothes produces uneasiness, sickness
(iv) Unventilated environment leads to digestive disorder loss of appetite, anemia,
metabolic disturbances, etc.
(v) Cold, cough, infectious diseases, influenza, pneumonia etc. are some of the problems
of inadequate ventilation.
(vi) Gases from exhaust vehicles and industries damage the eyes and trachea.
The Aids Pandemic
The AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) virus has caused a worldwide
epidemic, which can be called a pandemic because it continues to spread throughout the
world. Millions of people have been infected. The virus was first identified as the cause of
AIDS in the late 1970s. Since then, individuals with the infection have been reported in
nearly every country in the world. Estimated mortality rates are about 60 percent, according
to the U.S. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. The disease is spread through direct
physical contact, between individuals in which body fluids containing the, virus enter the
bloodstream. Sharing of contaminated needles among intravenous drug users and sexual
contact are the most-likely methods of passage. In the United States, the disease was once
considered a problem only for the homosexual community and those who use intravenous
drugs. This perception is rapidly changing. Many of the new cases of AIDS are being found
in women infected by male sex partners and in the children of infected women. In parts of
Africa, the disease has always been primarily a heterosexual disease.
In the poor countries of central Africa, many believe that permissive sexual behaviour
and prostitution have created conditions for a rapid spread of the disease. In addition, there
is little opportunity for medical care. Many people have already died from the disease.
Others who are currently infected will die in the near future. Some villages are already
beginning to notice a change in the structure of their populations. With the death, of young
infected’ adults, villages are composed primarily of older people and children. The disease
is spreading at an alarming rate, and, it has no cure as yet and no vaccine so far. The
disease is almost fatal. People in the age group 20-39 are more susceptible to getting AIDS.
Causative germ of AIDS is a virus named HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). It
has been detected in body fluids like blood, semen, saliva, tears and urine. It attacks the
immune system (i.e. the’ cells that fight against infections) and the patient suffers seriously
from even minor infections of other diseases. Even cancers appear when the immune system
fails.
Incubation period i.e. the time between receiving the infection and the’ appearance
of symptoms may even be more than 10-12 years. During this period the persons show
positive results for HIV infection and they are popularly called HIV-positive. Most individuals,
when AIDS is fully developed, die within 3 years from other infections or cancers. Symptoms
during this period may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats and weight loss.
Transmission of Aids
The AIDS virus is highly infective. It is transmitted by any one of the following methods:-
(i) Sexual intercourse between a man and woman, when anyone of two is infected.
(The virus occurs in the fluids of the reproductive passages). Prostitution is the
biggest source to spread the infection. Safest is the single partnership wife and
husband relationship
(ii) Homosexual intercourse (anal sex) with an infected person. The disease is more
common in homosexual males.
(iii) Contaminated blood transfusions. In many situations the patients have to be
given blood transfusions as in excessive bleeding resulting from injury, or during
surgery, etc. Some children are born with the disease thalassemia with defective
hemoglobin of the blood. Such children have to be given regular blood transfusions
usually every 3-4 weeks and very often the blood transfused is from professional
donors.
(iv) Mother to child transmission. The germ from the infected mother may cross
through the placenta and reach the embryo in the womb.
(v) Injection needles if shared by more than one person may introduce the virus
from one individual to another. The disease is quite. common in drug abusers. For
the same reason, doctors in hospitals now use only disposable syringes, which are
used just once. AIDS is not transmitted by contact with patient’s clothes and other
articles, shaking hands, eating together and sharing bathrooms and toilets.
Women and Child Welfare
Women and Environment
As child bearers, family caretakers and consumers; as food-products, fuel and water
gatherers and users; as field, forest, factory and office workers, women are primary managers,
and often preservers of natural resources. Women’s work is generally undervalued. As a
result, women constitute a disproportionate number of the poorest groups of people and are
victims of hunger, illiteracy, poor health, scarce social and technical services, inadequate
population policies and other consequences of poverty. In addition, women’s participation
and influence is inadequately represented in decision-making spheres concerning environment
and development issues affecting the quality of their lives.
Child Power
Children begin to acquire an extremely important economic role. They do many crucial
tasks like caring for younger children, fetching fuel, fodder and water and grazing animals,
so that the adults can undertake waged labour. “Children have become the unwitting victims
of the continuing energy hunger in a family below the poverty line, is compelled to meet its
energy needs only by producing several children.” But this will not only have important
implications for the education, health and nutrition of children but also for the country’s
massive family planning programmes and the health of women. If underfed and overworked,
women are also expected to bear many children, the impact on their health will obviously
be drastic.
Some organizations working for women and child welfare are:
• National Institute of Public’ Co-operation and Child Development (NIPCCD)
• World Health Organization
• Central Social Welfare Board
• Voluntary Health Association of India
• Indian Council of Child Welfare
• United Nations Children’s Fund and others
(A) Central Social Welfare Board
Central social welfare board was established in 1953 under the social Welfare Ministry.
It generally assists in the improvement and development of social welfare activities. Grant
in aid programme, welfare programme development, control and evaluation work, training
and motivation are the main objectives of the social welfare board. Its functions are:
(a) The spirit of continued partnership between statutory and voluntary welfare services
to act as complementary and supplementary to each other.
(b) Provides technical and financial aid to the Panchayati Raj Institutions in accordance
with the schemes and principles approved by the government of India.
(c) Promotes social welfare activities intended for family, women, children and the
handicapped. Assistance in case of unemployment, under employment, old age,
sickness, disablement and other cases of under served organization.
(d) It is change over from un-organized charity to the systematic line of support by
state government wherever considered necessary or desirable.
(e) Need for rationalizing the system of rendering financial assistance to voluntary
organization for the uncovered areas.
(f) Conducting of regular surveys regarding the needs and requirements of the social
welfare organization.
(g) Co-ordination and cooperation among the voluntary organizations functioning at
all levels, amongst themselves and with the governmental agencies, between the
concerned government departments at central and state level, district and local
levels.
Other functions of Central Social Welfare Board
(i) Mahila Mandal Programme: Various voluntary Mahila Mandals are getting
assistance from the central social welfare board.
(ii) Holiday Homes for Children are organized for 15 days for socially and economically
backward families. The camp aims at giving training to children in discipline, sense
of group living and team spirit, help in national integration, apart from exposure
to new surroundings.
(iii) Creches Programme: This programme provides day care services for children of
working and ailing mothers.
(B) VHAI-Voluntary Health Association of lndia
Indian Women’s Sabha: The Indian Women’s Sabha organizes Maternity and child
health centres. The branches of this Sabha ate found all over the country, clinics, hospitals,
adult education centres, milk distribution centres and family planning programmes are
managed by the women’s sabha.
(C) Indian Council of Child Welfare (ICCW)
Indian council of child welfare was established in 1952 for the welfare of children and
providing health services to them. The council has its branches in every state with its head
quarters at New Delhi. The main functions of the institution are:
(i) Initiate, undertake or aid directly or through its branches or affiliated bodies schemes
for the furtherance of child welfare in India.
(ii) It provides dissemination of knowledge and information and to educate public
opinion for child welfare programmes on a scientific basis.
(iii) Establish a central bureau for the study and collection of data and statistics in
respect of child welfare work.
(iv) It cooperates with national and international organizations having similar objectives.
(D) United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
It is an international agency, a subsidiary body of the General Assembly. It came into
being on 11th December 1946 after the Second World War. Now the words ‘international’
and ‘emergency’ have been dropped from the name of the organization. It is now called
United Nations Children’s Fund but abbreviation in vogue is still UNICEF. UNICEF has
completed 48 years of service in India. UNICEF is not financed through the regular U.N.
budget, but by voluntary contributions from the member countries, besides individual
organizations. 10% of its resources come from the sale of UNICEF greeting cards. Aid is
given only for those projects, which aim to prevent disease and promote health of the
mothers and children.
India and UNICEF
UNICEF has completed 48 years in the year 1997 and has provided assistance, training
programmes and many regional projects started from time to time. UNICEF has changed
many facets and programmes for the ever-changing health standards. In 1959 WHO and F
AO along with UNICEF started a nutritional programme for the children of less than 5
years of age. Then it was changed to Extended Nutritional Programme, which was organized
through Mahila Mandals. In 1963 this programme was made more useful by giving nutrition
to children and also to pregnant and lactating mothers and named as Applied Nutrition
Programme. In the decade 1980-90, UNICEF expanded its services to remote rural areas.
Functions of UNICEF
(i) Child Development and Survival
UNICEF provides priority to infant and children’s health and nutrition programmes.
Child and infant mortality rate during the decade 1985-95 declined from 110/1000 children
to 8711000.
(ii) Universal Immunization
Expanded Programme on immunization (EPI). This programme was started by the
W.H.O. in 1974 for providing immunization against six fatal diseases i.e. measles,
poliomyelitis, diphtheria, whooping cough or pertusis, tetanus and tuberculosis. This fulfils
the concept of providing primary health protection for all children.
(iii) Nutrition
UNICEF assist in conducting the Applied Nutrition Programme by establishing nutrition
centres, school and community gardens. Provides funds for training and nutrition programme
at rural level.
(iv) Primary Health Care
The UNICEF sponsors Child health care programmes. It provides funds for the training
of doctors, nurses, and public health officers, health workers. UNICEF is providing equipment
and material for primary health centres and sub-centres as well as hospitals and laboratories,
which support them.
(v) Formal and Informal Education
UNICEF provides stipends for refresher training to teachers including primary-school
teachers.
(vi) Water and Sanitation
Water and sanitation are part of health programming and UNICEF co-operates in
programmes to supply safe water and improved sanitation.
(vii) Urban Services
UNICEF provides stipends to more women and girls for training in child care, homecrafts, food preservation and income-earning skills and provide stipends to train local leaders
to help organize activities in their own villages and communities.


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7 Human Population and Environment part 3

Chemical Method
• Jellies, creams and foam: A number of different spermicidal jellies, creams,
and foams are available for use of contraceptive agents. These jellies, creams
or foams are inserted into vagina five to fifteen minutes before copulation to
take place. Oral contraceptive: These are popularly known as pill are
combinations of synthetic sex. Hormones (estrogens and progesterone) e.g.
overall, mala. They suppress the production of ovum by hormones and alter
the adulatory cycle.
• Sterilization: It is surgical technique by which the passage of sperms or
ovum is disconnected. Both men and women can be sterilized without loosing
their ability to function sexually.
• Vasectomy: In man the sterilization procedure is called a vasectomy. In this
procedure the vesa differentia, the tubes that lead from the testes to the
ejaculatory ducts, are cut so that the sperm produced in the testis cannot
reach the ejaculatory ducts to enter the ejaculate.
• Tubectomy: In females tubectomy is done. In this procedure, the fallopian
tubes, which transport the egg from the ovaries to the uterus are cut and tied
off.
Environment and Human Health
Webster Collegiate Dictionary defines health as “the state of being hale and sound in
body mind or soul especially from physical disease or pain. The concept of health incorporates
physical state free from diseases, social and mental caliber of a human being. Community
refers to a group of persons living at one place that shares and have social contact. A healthy
man is an asset to the country, but a sick man is a burden. Community health services
provide medical treatment of various diseases, controls the spread of communicable diseases,
control of pests and insects, social welfare health service, maternity and child welfare services,
school medical services, hospital, research institutions etc. Lack of nutrition, clothing and
improper housing, etc. spread many communicable diseases. Maternal and infant mortality
rate raises poverty also leads to child abuse, liquor and drug addiction, exploitation and
crime against women, etc.
Environment and health are inter-dependent. Physical environment include climate,
sound and radioactive pollution sunrays and heat, air pressure, water and air directly or
indirectly affect our health. A person is surrounded by biological environment where insects
and many other biological microbes, which in turn spread diseases. Social and economic
environment also determine the standard of health. Man’s social environment is developed
in a family and family is the basic unit of a society. Small-sized families where family
members are happy and prosperous their health will be in good condition. In large families
rearing of children become a difficult task. Meeting the demands of nutritious food and
health are not given priority with the result children’s personality and overall development
suffers.
(i) Socio-economic factor
Leads to inadequate family resources, which cannot fulfill the wants and thus reduces
the health standards and food problem is more prevalent in poor families. Lack of sanitary
habits and inappropriate nutritional food will develop communicable and harmful diseases.
Illiteracy is one of the major defects to raise the standard of living, sanitation and health.
(ii) Communicable disease problem
In India communicable diseases generally spread on a large scale. The contaminated
food and water intake, dirt, sewage waste, improper light and pure air, Improper ventilation
arrangements in the house, stagnant water and dirt, over crowding, lavatory and cleanliness
are some of the causes for the spread of diseases. Communicable diseases may spread
through air, contact, contaminated food and water directly. Cholera diarrhea, typhoid etc.,
are some of the diseases. Insects and microbial parasites spread malaria and plague like
diseases.
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT
Vegetative plants and trees are called autotrophy because they can produce their own
food through the process of Photosynthesis, this category is primary productive unit and
their entire living organism depends on the vegetation for acquiring food. Photographs like
insects, animals, birds and all human beings cannot produce their own food. Some
microorganisms like bacteria, fungus, microbes, etc., derive food from dead plants and animals.
Thus, all the living organisms are interdependent for their survival.
Human being is always adjusting to the ever-changing environment and in the past he
has never attempted to alter it. But after twentieth century there has been a tremendous
increase in physical wants and desires. Fast development in every sphere of life has undergone
with the ever-increasing wants and demands for food products. Ever increasing pressure on
land has caused forestland to be utilized for cultivation.
There is all-round development and progress in the field of science and industries, new
technology is being introduced and I variety of products are now being produced. As a result
environmental pollution has increased. New technology has provided us goods to make our
lives happier, more comfortable and luxurious, pollution hazards and its ill effect are being
observed in every sphere of life. There is general reduction in physical power and energy,
also deterioration of health standards. Development and destruction are co-related and give
rise to many problems due to environmental pollution, water pollution, air pollution,
destruction of forests, disappearing wild life, radiation effect, on living organisms.
Man is acquiring essential resources from the nature itself. Hence, it is essential to
protect and preserve the natural resources. Natural disaster and destruction have increased
the temperature on the earth is steadily rising. Certain drastic steps are needed in order
to save our planet.
DISEASES
(a) Through respiration: By nose, mouth, lungs, cough, sneeze, spit, spreads cold,
measles, tuberculosis, pneumonia, etc.
(b) Through intestine: Human excreta spread typhoid, diarrhoea, intestinal worms,
cholera, poliomyelitis, etc.
(c) Skin: Scale of the skin, skin pus like smallpox, measles, etc.
(d) Through blood: AIDS, malaria, yellow fever, dengue, filarial, etc., are some of the
diseases which spread through blood.
1. DIPHTHERIA
It is an acute infectious and communicable disease caused by involvement of respiratory
system. The microorganisms of this disease attack the tonsils, trachea, nasal passage and
sound box and secrete a false membrane of oxotoxin, which cause inflammation. In severe
conditions it causes difficulty in breathing. This disease is quite common among the children
of the age of 6 months to five years. It can also occur up to the age of 15 years. The mortality
rates are 50% in respect of diphtheria occurring below the age of 5 years.
Pathogenic organism: The microbes spreading diphtheria belong to bacillus group and
are of three types:
1. C. Diphtheria gravies
2. C. Diph. Intermedius
3. C. Diph. Miti
Mode of spread: The spread of this disease may be by:
(a) Direct contact chiefly through the carriers, whether sick or healthy. Nasal
carriers are more dangerous than throat carriers.
(b) Indirect transmission through infected articles such as, clothes, toys, utensils,
etc.
Incubation period: It is of 2 to 5 days duration when the microbes enter the body.
Infective period: After the patient shows the symptoms of diphtheria and the period
when microorganism leave the body is of 2-5 weeks on an average.
Symptoms: Initially the patient feels weak, nausea, and loses appetite and alertness.
Immunization: D.P.T. (Diphtheria, Whooping cough, Tetanus) vaccine is introduced to
the child at the age of 6 weeks to 9 months in three doses. This vaccine is given at the
interval of one month. A booster dose is given at the age of 2 years.
Prevention and Control
• The patient should be isolated.
• Disinfections of the home, bedding clothes, toys, utensils, etc., is done thoroughly.
2. WHOOPING COUGH OR PERTUSIS
Whooping cough or pertusis is an acute respiratory infections disease caused by Bacillus
pertusis involving trachea, bronchi and bronchioles creating intense cough. Whooping cough
occurs in all ages. Effect of cold weather and in colder regions enhances the incidence of
disease.
Spread of disease: Since it is an infectious disease main source is the nasal discharge
and cough. It spreads directly from person to person.
Incubation period: It is of seven to fourteen days.
Infective period: Three weeks after the symptoms are observed. Symptoms: The patient
coughs frequently and its severity increases at night loss of appetite insomnia, weakness
persists. Immunization: Vaccine is prepared from dead bacillus and is administered along
with D.P.T. (Diphtheria, pertusis, tetanus).
3. TUBERCULOSIS
It is a chronic bacterial disease and highly infectious. Tuberculosis spreads through air
and affect the lungs of the person. It is caused by tubercle bacillus. This is prevalent both
in tropical and temperate climate.
Spread of disease: Tuberculosis spreads in the following manner:
(a) The infection spreads by inhalation of droplets expelled by the patient through,
sneezing, coughing, yawning etc.
(b) Through direct contact
(c) Infected articles, clothes, utensils, etc. may spread the disease.
Incubation period: Incubation period is about four to six weeks.
Symptoms: Initially, the patient feels easily exhausted, fatigue doing ordinary work and
feels excessive fatigue. Loss of appetite, hoarseness of throat, pain in the chest due to
infected lungs. Patient sweats profusely at knight and feels weak.
Immunization: Child should be given B.C.G. (Bacillus Chalmette Guerine) vaccine by
intra-dermal injection within the first three months of age.
Control and prevention: Following steps need to be undertaken to control the spread of
tuberculosis:
• Health and general sanitary conditions of the community should be taken good care
of. Every human being should live in fresh air and sunshine.
• Workers of cotton and ginning mills, coalmines, tobacco bidi making etc. should
wear protective shield to prevent inhalation of dust or silica dust.
• Patient should be isolated. The disinfections of clothes, utensils, articles rooms etc.
should be properly ensured.
4. CHOLERA
Cholera is an acute infectious disease caused by the infection of intestinal canal,
characterized by sudden vomiting, watery diarrhea, cramps in legs and leads to fast
dehydration.
Pathogenic organisms: Cholera producing microorganisms are Vibrio species and they
can belong to two sub-groups:
1. Vibrio cholerae
2. Vibrio El tor
Vibrio cholerae: Vibrio cholerae is found in stools and vomits of the patient. It is active,
mobile and grows in alkaline medium. It dies at 55°C in minutes. In contaminated water the
organism can survive for two weeks. Insects, particularly housefly disseminates this disease.
Vibrio El tor: The other germ Vibrio el tor spreads in the Bay of Bengal and coastal
areas in large scale through direct contact, unhygienic conditions, over-crowding, fair and
feast on festivals incubation period: The duration of incubation period is very short, ranging
from a few hours to five days.
Period of communicability: Lasts until the patient is free from cholera germs.
Symptoms: Patient starts vomiting and suffers loose motions. This may lead to loss of
water and minerals in the body.
Immunization: Vaccine is prepared from dead Vibrio cholera and is given when there
is a danger of spread of cholera.
Prevention and Control
• All deject should be collected in the can in which quick lime is placed at the bottom.
• Anti-fly measures should be adopted.
• Avoid eating of rotten fruit, boiling of water and milk, protection from flies and
dust.
• Phenyl, bleaching powder and other disinfectant should be sprayed in the area.
• Segregation and disinfections of soiled clothes, articles used by the patient.
5. MALARIA
Malaria spreads in the rainy season. The malarial parasite is a protozoon named
‘Plasmodium’. It survives in the red blood corpuscles of the human blood. Man acquires
infection by the bite of an infected female anopheles mosquito, which inject the malarial
parasites in the form of spores.
The malarial parasite is of four types:
(i) Plasmodium: It has a life cycle of 48 hours causing fever after every two days. .
(ii) Plasmodium malaria: It has a life cycle of 72 hours causing fever after every three days.
(iii) Plasmodium falciparum: Irregular fever may occur after every ’48 hours. The
symptoms are very severe and of malignant type: high fever, delirium and death
(iv) Plasmodium ovale: This virus produces mild kind of malaria. They are found mostly
in Africa.
Incubation Period: The time when the insect bites and till the symptoms appear is
called incubation period, which is as follows:
1. Plasmodium vivex—14 days
2. Plasmodium malaria—30 days
3. Plasmodium falciparum—12 days
Spread of disease: Female anopheles mosquito spreads malaria disease. For the spread
of the disease, the optimum conditions are a mean temperature of 20° to 30°C with 63%
humidity. Economic conditions, insufficient food, over-crowding, increase the incidence of
malaria. Irrigation, leakage in canals, water logging, and rice cultivation may serve as the
breeding place for mosquitoes.
SymptomsThe cold stage: The patient feels cold and suffers from fever, headache, nausea andvomiting.Anemia and enlargement of spleen and liver are the after- effects of the disease.Prevention of Malaria:Malaria can be prevented in the following manner:• Proper drainage, removal of stagnant water.• To destroy mosquitoes at some stage of his life cycle i.e., during larva stage, oradults. Use of oil, diesel, kerosene. Gammexane, etc. can destroy the breeding.• Cutting of vegetation, which has grown thickly, and servers as a breeding place inthe daytime. Putting net, wire grill on doors and windows.
6. TETANUS
A toxin of tetanus bacillus induces tetanus or lockjaw, followed by wound. Tetanus
bacillus lives in the contaminated soil of road, gardens and agriculture land. These microbes
survive in the intestinal track of horses and cattle. They attack the nervous system and
causes instant death.
Spread of disease: The bacillus enters the body through various wounds and spread
their toxin in the blood stream like during operations, unhygienic deliveries of babies, etc.
Incubation Period: Generally it is of 8 to 10 days.
Immunization: Tetanus toxoid vaccine is given along with D.P.T. (Diphtheria, Pertusis,
Tetanus). Intra-muscular injection is given in three doses at the interval of one month. One
booster dose is given at the age of 5-6 years and another booster dose is repeated when the
child is 10 years and 16 years of age. Tetanus vaccine is given as a preventive measure.
Prevention
All wounds should be treated carefully especially if there is a fear of contamination with
refuses or soil wound should be thoroughly cleaned with disinfectant or 3% iodine solution.
In addition, ATS (Anti Tetanus-serum) injection should be given.
Human Rights
A right may be defined as something to which an individual has a just claim. Human
rights are those that individuals have by virtue of their existence as human beings. The
right to life itself and the basic necessities of food and clothing may be considered fundamental
human rights. Human rights traditionally have been put in two categories as:
(i) Natural rights and
(ii) Civil rights.
Natural rights are those that belong to individuals by virtue of their humanity: the
right to remain alive, to sustain life with food and shelter and to follow the dictates of their
conscience.



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7 Human Population and Environment part 2

Population explosion: The very great and continuing increase in human population
in modern times. This is a great hazard to the development and prosperity of a
nation.
Consequences of population explosion:
(i) It can lead to depletion of resources.
(ii) Severe competition for food and space.
(iii) Increase in psychological stress and strain.
(iv) Rapid pollution of environment.
(v) Large scale unemployment.
To meet the demands- of growing population, forests are cut, oceans are exploited and
the entire natural equilibrium gets disturbed. A growth human population first faces the
problem of food, then shelter and thirdly other socio-economic problems. Even if enough food
is produced and the population growth does not show a steady slow growth but explosions
then many secondary problems will certainly arise which are more persisting and problematic.
Like in increase in competition for shelter, education, medical, rise in price index, ecological
crisis etc.
Human Population: Malthus’s Human Population Theory
In 1798 T.R. Malthus published an essay on population, the great economist outlined
the problem of population graphically and stated that human population tends to increase
in geometrical pattern (1-2-4-8…….) whereas the food production increases by arithmetic
progression (1-2-3-4………). This is called as theory of human population growth proposed by
Malthus. For nearly 150 years Malthus view was nearly forgotten as the advancement of
technologies to place. The world population during Stone Age was only 10 million as indicated
in records. Earlier the annual growth rate, in last three centuries was roughly 0.4 = 0.5%
where as it reached. to 2% in last two decades. The doubling time (the time required by a
population to double itself) reduced from 200 years in 1650 A.D. to merely 35 years in 1980.
During 1800 A.D. the birth rate and death rate was almost balanced.
Table 7.1: World Population Increase
S.No. Date Population (million)
1. 5000 B.C. 50
2. 800 B.C. 100
3. 200 B.C. 200
4. 1200 A.D. 400
5. 1700 A.D. 800
6. 1900 A.D. 1,600
7. 1965 A.D. 3,200
8. 1990 A.D. 5,300
9. 2020 A.D. (estimate) 8,230
Source: Population Reference Bureau, Inc., Washington, DC
Current Population Trends
Currently, the world population is over 5.5 billion. By the year 2010, this is expected
to increase to just over 7 billion people. In Africa, Asia, and Latin America, which already
have nearly 80 percent of the world population. The total population of Africa, Asia, and
Latin America will increase from the current 4.4 billion to over 7 billion by 20 I 0, when they
will contain 83 percent of the world’s people. These regions not only have the highest
population growth rates, but also have the lowest per capita gross national product (GNP).
The GNP is an index that measures the total goods and services generated within a country.
This large difference in economic well being is reflected in a dissimilarity in the standard
of living, an abstract measure of the degree to which necessities and comforts of daily life
are met.
Table 7.2: Population growth rates in selected countries (1993)
S.No. Country Births Deaths Infant Rate of Time Needed
per 1,999 per 1,000 Mortality natural to double
Rate (deaths increase population
per 1,000) (annual %) (years)
1. Germany 10 11 6.7 0.1 –
2. Belgium 13 11 8.4 0.2 330
3. United Kingdom 14 11 7.1 0.3 267
4. Japan 10 7 4.7 0.3 217
5. Sweden 14 11 6.2 0.3 210
6. USSR (Former) 16 11 2.8 0.6 123
7. United States 16 9 8.6 0.8 82
8. Canada 15 7 6.8 0.8 87
9. Argentina 21 8 25.6 1.3 53
10. Turkey 29 7 59.0 2.2 32
11. Paraguay 34 6 48.0 2.7 26
12. Afghanistan 49 22 168.0 2.8 25
13. Ethiopia 47 20 127.0 2.8 25
14. Zimbabwe 41 11 59.0 3.0 23
15. Guatemala 39 7 59.0 3.1 22
16. Syria 45 7 48.0 3.8 18
Source: Enger & Smith, 1995
Consequences of Continued Population Growth
As the human population continues to increase, the pressure for the necessities of life
will become greater. Differences in standard of living between developed and less-developed
countries will remain great because most population increases will occur in less-developed
countries. The supply of fuel and other resources is dwindling. The pressure for these
resources will intensify as the industrialized countries seek to maintain their current standard
of living. People in less developed countries will continue to seek more land to raise the
crops needed to feed themselves unless major increases in food production per hectare occur.
Developed countries may have to choose between helping the less developed countries while
maintaining their friendship, or isolating themselves from the problems of the less developed
nations.
Even if the industrialized countries continue to get a disproportionate share of the
world’s resources, the amount of resource per person will decline as population rises. It
seems that, as world population increases, the less developed areas will maintain their low
standard of living.
Table 7.3: Twelve most populous countries in 2025 (population in millions)
S.No. Country 1950 1992 2025
1. China 554.8 1,165.8 1,590.8
2. India 357.6 882.8 1,383.1
3. United States 152.3 255.6 295.5
4. Indonesia 49.5 184.5 285.9
5. Pakistan 79.5 121.7 281.4
6. Brazil 39.5 150.8 237.2
7. Nigeria 53.4 90.1 216.2
8. Bangladesh 32.9 114.4 211.6
9. Russia 41.8 149.3 170.7
10. Iran 16.9 59.7 159.2
11. Mexico 28.0 87.7 143.3
12. Japan 83.6 124.4 124.1
Source: Data from the Population Reference Bureau, Inc., 1993.
Environmental Implications of Food Production
The human population can increase only at the expense of the populations of other
animals and plants. Each ecosystem has a finite carrying capacity and, therefore, has a
maximum biomass that can exist within that ecosystem. There can be shifts within ecosystems
to allow an increase in the population of one species, but this always adversely affects
certain other populations because they are competing’ for the same basic resources. When
the population of farmers increased in the prairie regions of North America, the population
of buffalo declined.
When humans need food, they turn to agricultural practices and convert natural
ecosystems to artificially maintained agricultural ecosystems. Mismanaged agricultural
resources are often irreversibly destroyed. In most cases, if the plants were fed to animals,
many people would starve to death. In contrast, in most of the developed world, meat and
other animal protein sources are important parts of the diet. Many suffer from over nutrition
(they eat too much); they are “malnourished” in a different sense. The ecological impact of
one person eating at the carnivore level is about ten times that of a person feeding at the

herbivore level. If people in the developed world were to reduce their animal protein intake,
they would significantly reduce their demands on world resources.
The current situation with respect to world food production and hunger is very
complicated. It involves the resources needed to produce food, such as arable land, labour
and machines, appropriate crop selection, and economic incentives. It also involves the maldistribution of food within countries. This is often an economic problem, since the poorest
in most countries have difficulty finding the basic necessities of life, while the richer have
an excess of food and other resources. Improved plant varieties, irrigation and improved
agricultural methods have dramatically increased food production in some parts of the
world. In recent years, India, China and much of southern Asia have moved from being food
importers to being self-sufficient, and in some cases food exporters.
Population trends in India
India accounts for nearly. 1.5 per cent of the world population. Population has undergone
an approximately three-fold increase during the last 80 years. According to the census of
1901, there were 235,396,327 people in this country. The number slightly came down in
1921 as a result of some epidemics. In ‘1951, the population was 361,008,0,90, which went
up to 439,234,771 and 548,159,652 in 1961 and 1971, respectively. The main reason for the
rapid growth is fall in death rate as a result of better medical care. The sex ratio in India’
in 1981 was 1071 males per 1000 females. In Punjab in 1981, there were 1138 males per
1000 females whereas the number of males to females in Kerala was 969: 1000. The age
ratio of Indian population shows that there is high proportion of young people belonging to
the pre-reproductive age group i.e. 42.2 per cent in the age group of 0-14 years.
Table 7.4: Population estimates for some of the states in India (1991)
S.No. State/Union territory Population
1. Uttar Pradesh 1,38,760,417
2. Bihar 86,338,853
3. Maharashtra 78,706,719
4. West Bengal 67,982,732
5. Andhra Pradesh 66,304,854
6. Madhya Pradesh 66,135,862
7. Tamil Nadu 55,638,318
8. Karnataka 44,817,398
9. Rajasthan 43,880,640
10. Gujarat 41,174,060
11. Orissa 31 ,512,070
12. Kerala 29,011,237
13. Assam 22,294,562
14. Punjab 20,190,795
15. Haryana 16,317,715
16. Delhi 9,370,475
Measures to Control over Population
Various methods for discouraging population growth in shortest period are:
(i) To educate the people about the abuses of overpopulation (Population education),
food production, self-employment.
(ii) To provide free family planning aids (Family planning methods).
(iii) Motivating people to undergo sterilization process (Birth control) .
(iv) More incentives to families observing family planning norms (Limited family)
(v) By imposing legal restrictions (by laws).
(vi) Over-population is one of the numerous problems facing India. The solution of the
population problem is very urgent. The population problem can be solved by major
steps, which are given below:
(a) Education: The enormous rate at which Indian parents have been producing
children is because of illiteracy and ignorance. People should be educated
about the consequences of over-population and uses of planned and small
family.
(b) Family planning: The expression family planning means a deliberate effort,
and the adoption of suitable methods, to restrict the growth of family. That
is to say family planning involves a deliberate limitation on the size of family.
Following are some of the important family planning measures:
• Use of contraceptives (Mechanical, Chemical and Natural methods):
Contraception means the prevention of conception. There are many
contraceptive techniques available for use e.g. Today etc.
• Sterilization
• Abortion
• Use of other natural methods
Mechanical method
• Condom (For male’s use): The condom is a sheath of rubber, which fits over
the erect penis. It is placed on the penis of male before it is introduced into
the vagina for copulation.
• Diaphragm (For female’s use): The diaphragm is a rubber cup stretched over
collapsible metal spring coil. It is designed to fit over the cervix (the mouth
of uterus).
• Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUD): It is a small metal or plastic
device, which is designed to fit inside the uterus mouth. A doctor must fit and
remove IUD.
• Norplant: A new implant has been cleared by Health Ministry of India. The
implant placed below the skin, ensures the contraceptive power up to 5 years.
It is new contraceptive to India and there is some resistance to woman’s body.
Initially it will be used in urban areas.


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7 Human Population and Environment part 1

7 Human Population and Environment

Introduction
Human society is governed by interaction and cooperation with other human beings.
Latest trends in technology and medical knowledge are available to control human population
growth and to improve the health. Still population continues to increase and poverty become
greater than ever before. Humans are social animals who have freedom of choice. They
largely take decision by heart rather than mind. It is evident from historical records, social
situations, ethical and religious considerations and personal desires. Today the greatest
hindrance to controlling human population is no more biological but falls into the province
of philosophers, theologians, politicians, sociologists, and others. The cause of the population
problem is to be understood if we are to deal successfully with the population problem.
Carrying Capacity
The carrying capacity of an area is the number of individuals of a species that can
survive in that area over time. In most populations, four broad categories of factors determine
the carrying capacity for a population. These factors are: (1) the availability of raw materials,
(2) the availability of energy, (3) the accumulation of waste products and their means of
disposal and (4) interactions among organisms. The total of all of these forces acting together
to limit populations size is known as environmental resistance, and certain limiting factors
have a primary role in limiting the size of a population. In some cases, these limiting factors
are easy to identify and may involve lack of food, lack of oxygen, competition with other
species, or disease.
Population Characteristics
A population can be defined as a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting
an area. Some of the characteristics or a population are nasality (birth rate), mortality
(death rate), sex ratio, age distribution, growth rates, and special distribution.
Natality refers to the number of individuals added to the population through
reproduction. In human populations, natality is usually described in terms of the birth
rate, the number of individuals born per one thousand individuals in the population per
year. It is important to recognize that the growth of a population is not determined by the
birth rate (natality) alone.
This is expressed as
B (Natality rate) = Nn/t which means = No. of new individuals added to population time.
Mortality is the number of deaths per year. In human population studies, mortality is
usually discussed in terms of the death rate, the number of individuals who die per one
thousand individuals in the population per year.
Population Density is population size in relation to some unit of space and time. It
varies with food availability and climatic conditions. It can be measured as:
D = N/a
t
where D is population density, n = number of individuals, a = area and t = time.
Population Age Distribution refers to the individuals of different age groups in a
population. The natality and mortality is also different for respective ages. Bodenhelmer
(1938) recognized three ecological ages as: (i) Pre reproductive, (ii) Reproductive and
(iii) Post reproductive Fig. 1. Duration of these ages varies in different organisms e.g.
Insects have a very long pre-reproductive period, a very short reproductive period but no
post reproductive period at all. In man all the three stages are equal in length.
Post reproductive
Reproductive
Pre reproductive
Age structure
Expanding
Population
(A)
(B) Stable (C)
Population
Dim inishing
Population
Type of Population
Figure 7.1. Age structure in different types of populations
Biotic Potential is the maximum reproductive power. The constant percent growth
rate of a population under optimum environmental conditions thus represents its biotic
potential or reproductive potential. Letter designates it g.
g
AN AT
N
=
∆ /
where, N = number, t = time, D = constant.
The sex ratio refers to the number of males relative to the
Number of females in the population.
The Human Population Issue
Current population growth has led to famine in areas where food production cannot keep
pace with population growth; political unrest areas with great disparities in availability of
resources (jobs: goods, food); environmental degradation by poor agricultural practices (erosion,
desertification); water pollution by human and industrial waste; air pollution caused by the
human need to use energy for personal use and for industrial applications; extinctions caused
by people converting natural ecosystems to managed agricultural ecosystems; and. destructive
effects of exploitation of natural resources (strip, mining, oil spills, groundwater mining). In
addition to population size, the kind of demands a population places on its resources is also
important. Highly industrialized populations require much more energy and material resources
to sustain their way of life than do the populations of the less-developed world.
A Population Growth Curve
Sex ratios and age distributions within a population directly influence the rate of
reproduction within a population. Each species has an inherent reproductive capacity, or
biotic potential, which is its ability to produce offspring. However, this high reproductive
potential results in a natural tendency for populations to increase. For example, two mice
produce four offspring, which, if they live, will also produce offspring while their parent’s
are also reproducing. Therefore, the population will tend to grow in an exponential fashion.
Population growth tends to follow a particular pattern, consisting of a lag phase, an
exponential growth phase, and a stable equilibrium phase. Fig. 15 shows a typical population
growth curve. During the first portion of curve, known as the lag phase, the population
grows very slowly because the process of reproduction and growth of offspring takes time.
Most organisms do not reproduce instantaneously but must first mature into adults. Mating
and the development of the young ones into independent organisms follow this period. By
the time the first batch of young has reached sexual maturity, the parents may be in the
process of producing a second set of offspring. Since more total organisms now are reproducing,
the population begins to increase at an exponential rate. This stage in the population growth
curve is known as the exponential growth phase. This growth will continue for as long as
the, birth rate exceeds the death rate. Eventually, however, the death rate and the birth
rate will come to equal one another, and the population will stop growing and reach a
relatively stable population. size and is said to be the stable equilibrium phase. Hence,
populations cannot grow continuously because of the concept of carrying capacity.
(a) S-Shaped growth curve
When a species is introduced into a new habitat, the population grows exponentially until
the individuals become numerous. The further increase in their number is checked by the
environmental resistance factors that the population growth declines until zero population
growth is reached. (i.e. constant) and it becomes stable (K). Such curves are called sigmoid
curves.
The study of growth curves in S-shaped growth pattern is a self-limiting one where the
rate of growth is more and more as density increases. If the limitation is linearly proportional
to density we get a symmetrical S-curve so as to approach upper level or limit-K, the
carrying capacity. This pattern enhances stability as population regulates itself. Actually
the density often overshoots or is more than K and because of time lags in feedback control
resulting in oscillations as shown in graphs.

K (Carrying Capacity)
Steady State
Exponential Growth
(Log Phase) M ax. G rowth
Log Phase
Slow Growth
Figure 7.2. S-shaped growth curve.
(b) J-Shaped growth curve
The population increases whenever there is an increase in birth rate over death rate.
The factors of environmental resistance do not check population growth or stabilize the
growth (zero growth not established) then a J-shaped curve is obtained Fig. 3. It is hard to
speculate in the future of human population growth curve whether it will be S-shaped or
J-shaped. Growth curve are thus the graphical representation of a population in given time
period. It may be of S-shaped or J-shaped as mentioned.
Time
Populatio n Growth
Lim it
Figure 7.3. J-shaped growth curve.
When population increase in exponential (E) or geometric fashion (e.g. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32
………) until the population runs out of some resources or encounters, some other limitation
(N). Growth then comes to a more or less abrupt halt in such cases and density usually
declines rapidly until conditions for another rapid growth is restored. Population with this
kind of growth form instability unless regulated by factors outside the population.
(i) Growth rate decreases as density increases. (Self-limiting or inverse density dependent type.)
(ii) Growth rate is high until density become high and factors from outside of the
population become limiting. (Density independent type.)
(iii) Growth rate is highest at intermediate density.
Causes of Population Growth
There is an ultimate carrying capacity for the human population and limiting factors
will come into play to cause populations to stabilize. However, unlike populations of other
kinds of organisms, human populations are also influenced by a variety of social, political,
economic, and ethical factors. Humans have accumulated knowledge that allows for predictions
about the future and can make conscious decisions based on the likely course of events and
adjust their lives accordingly. Part of that knowledge is the certainty that as populations
continue to increase, death rates and birth rates will become equal. This can be accomplished
by allowing the death rate to rise or by choosing to limit the birth rate. It would seem that
controlling human population should be a simple process. Once everyone understands that
lowering the birth rate is more human than allowing the death rate to rise, most people
should make the “correct” decision; however, it is not quite that simple.
Biological Reasons for Population Growth
The study of human populations, their characteristics, and what happens to them is
known as demography. Demographers can predict the future growth of a population by
looking at several different biological indicators. When we look at birth rates and death
rates in various countries of the world, in almost all cases the birth rate exceeds the death
rate. Therefore, the size of the population must increase. Some countries that have high
birth rates and high death rates, with birth rates greatly exceeding the death rates, will
grow rapidly (Afghanistan and Ethiopia). Such countries Usually have an extremely high
mortality rate among children because of disease and malnutrition. Some countries have
high birth rates and low death rates and will grow extremely rapidly ~Guatemala and
Syria). Infant mortality rates are moderately high in these countries. Other countries have
low birth rates and death rates that closely match the birth rates and will grow slowly
(Sweden and the United Kingdom). These and other more, developed countries typically
have very low infant mortality rates.
Obviously, the most important determinant of the rate at which human populations
grow is related to the number of women in the population who are having children and the
number each will have. The total fertility rate of a population is the number of children
born per woman per lifetime. A total fertility rate of 2.1 is known as replacement fertility,
since in the long run, if the total fertility rate is 2.1, population growth will stabilize. When
population is not growing and the number of births equals the number of deaths, it is said
to exhibit zero population growth. The age structure of a population also has a great deal
to do with the rate of population growth. If a population has a large number of young people
who are in the process of raising families or who will be raising families in the near future,
the population will continue to increase even if the families limit themselves to two children.
Factors Controlling Population Growth
Man is the only one who has regulated his population by developing new astonishing
technologies for better and secured future on one hand. And on other hand, created a
problem of population explosion. Some factors are:
(i) Famines in a country or state lead to destruction.
(ii) Natural calamities like floods, droughts, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions,
hurricanes etc. lead to death of thousands of people.
(iii) Epidemic diseases, endemic diseases wipe a big number of populations.
(iv) Wars cause heavy casualties.
(v) Unnatural accidents caused during transportation, fires etc. Some factors that have
helped the population growth are:
(a) High production of food and better technologies for storage, processing and
distribution.
(b) Better medical facilities provided during childbirth and under five years age
by immunization.
The factors are many but they can be grouped into three as:
(i) Geographic factor: Like climate, soil, water, mineral resources, transportation
etc.
(ii) Demographic factor: Like birth rates (natality), death rates (mortality), sex ratio
etc.
(iii) Socio-economic factors: Like marriages, job availability, resources etc.
In the developed countries, population has started declining because of-
(i) Better medical and family planning facilities.
(ii) The low death and high birth rates. .
(iii) The educated people who know about ‘the abuses of over population have
small family.
Population and Standard of Living
Standard of living is a difficult concept to quantify since different cultures have different
attitudes and feelings about what is good and desirable. Here, we compare averages of
several aspects of the cultures in three countries: (1) the United States, which is an example
of a highly developed if industrialized country; (2) Argentina, which is a moderately developed
country; and (3) Zimbabwe, which is less developed. Obviously, tremendous differences exist
in the standard of living among these three countries. What the average U.S. citizen would
consider a poverty level of existence would be considered a luxurious life for the average
person in a poorly developed country. Standard of living seems to be closely tied to energy
consumption.
Population Explosion-Family Welfare Programme
Growth of Human Population
Emigration: The number of individuals going out from a population to join another
population in a new locality resulting in decrease of the original population.
Immigration: It is the addition of new individuals to the population from other
localities.
Density dependent factors: An increase in population leads to competition, since
all its individuals have identical requirements for food and space. Population increase
causes scarcity of food, consequently leading to death due to starvation.
Density independent factors: Interaction between populations in a given area
can lead to mutual benefits, to competition for resources or dependence of one on
the other.



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6 Environmental science Social Issues part 4

Indian scenario
Laws need to be strengthened and implemented properly to protect the environment.
Although India has a number of rules and regulations to protect the environment they have
still not reached the stage of full compliance. The growth of environmental laws is a reflection
of the speed with which environmentalism has established itself as a potent political force.
But many of the laws are either trivial or short-lived and vulnerable to political pressure.
Politicians do not violate laws, but the laws are so modified to suit their vested interests.
Environment regulations may thus be modified to tap the tourist potential of an area or to
set up some other industry. There have been many instances where laws have been changed
to accommodate commercialization in hill areas.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, gives wildlife wardens the power to protect animals
in wildlife parks and sanctuaries. But we also find that these wardens exercise their power
on traditional entertainers. Monkey, bear and snakes shows on streets are a common scene.
The state earns money by putting wild animals on exhibition in zoological parks and permits
circus companies to train animals for entertainment to earn profit. Environmental values
are difficult to integrate into Indian law. Though regulatory controls have become stricter,
the state of the environment has not improved because of the financial crunch, absence of
basic infrastructure, reliance on litigation, absence of comprehensive industrial location
policy and absence of relevant technology.
In India, several legislations have been passed to check pollution, such as the Air
(Prevention of Pollution) Act, Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, Environment
(Protection) Act. The legislation on air has some loopholes since it does not provide for the
prevention of interstate air pollution. It deals with the control of noxious emissions from
specified industrial processes, automobiles and noise pollution. Smoke and other non-noxious
emissions are not covered under this Act. There has to be transparency in the judicial
system. The public has the right to know what is going on. The judiciary has to think before
passing judgments. Without thinking of alternatives’ such as rehabilitation, these verdicts
will just continue to push up the cost of illegal management.
Public Awareness
Environmental Science aims at creating understanding among masses of the delicate
balance, which exists, between natural environment and its dependents (humans) to optimize
the exploitation of resources on economic basis, which would lead to sustainable development.
Secondly, it encourages students and researchers to make careers in the field of environment
knowledge of the basic principles of ecology and environmental science would inbuilt a sense
of duty in the citizens to care and. manage the natural resources on an optimal basis. Such
awareness is essential because the causes and solutions to environmental problems are
often linked.
Public awareness addresses issues by which a common man becomes aware of activities,
which would result in improvement of the overall environment When public awareness rises
to a level where masses come to know the do’s and don’ts of the environment, the rules and
regulation have little role to play. People should understand that how they should. react to
pollution’ problems, natural hazards, anthropogenic hazards, waste-disposal problem, hunting,
deforestation and ecosystem problems (bio-magnification, food chain and food web concept).
Public awareness increase upon making the people understand how malpractices affect
environmental systems and in turn how environmental systems affect whom. But one
important question arises here. Who would inform whom and when? Public participation in
environmental decision-making can help to a great extent. Their participation has both
moral and practical implications.
Environmental awareness increases easily in financially stable and better-educated
people through book reading, films, newspaper, magazines and other electronic media.
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) can play a better role in spread of information ‘up
to village levels. Addressing issues of environmental significance to private voluntary
organizations, NGOs, farmers, organizations, cooperatives, schools, universities – and private
entrepreneurs, can increase public awareness. Thiswould bring more information to bear
on the planning process. Among the various sources, which can increase the public awareness
the role of mass media, is vibrant. It is so because people love to watch T.V., listen radio,
read newspaper and magazines.
Suggestions
• It is an effective tool for the spread of Environmental Science.
• Media people should be trained in addressing environmental issues to the public.
• Special employees should be deputed in press, radio and T.V. media.
• Environmental folk plays, puppet shows etc. should be organized to make the
ignorant and simple people aware of the present day problems.
• Drawing, craft and essay writing contests can be used as an effective tool at school
level.
• Visual, and calligraphic displays should be mounted in trains and buses as these
are used by common masses.
• Storybooks and cartoon network can help the future generation to mould itself
according to environmental needs.
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the word sustainable development? Explain.
2. What are urban problems? How we can solve the problem related to water conservation?
3. What are the ways to resettlement and Rehabilitation of people affected by the pollutions?
4. What are the environmental ethics? Write in 200 words.
5. Explain the Environment Protection Act in your own words.
6. What are the issues involved in enforcement of environment legislation?



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6 Environmental science Social Issues part 3

Scientific Programmes an Other Activities of International Organizations
The UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), UNDP (United Nations
Development Programme) are some of the environment programmes, which are making
active efforts and are doing research in this field. Apart from them, Economic Commission
for Europe (ECE), the European Economic Community (EEC), the European Science
Foundation (ESF), The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), International Social
Science Council (lSSC), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), The Inter-governmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) – this a part of UNESCO, the Scientific Committee on
Ocean Research (SCOR) and many other such organizations. Apart from them there are
other scientific activities underway which are funded by different organizations such as the
World’ Weather Watch (WWW), World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), World Climate
Programme (WCP), World Climate Impact Studies Programme (WCIP), Past Global Change
(PAGES), Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS), (Human Dimension of Global
Change (HDGC), Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), Global’ Change and
Terrestrial Eco-System (GCTE).
The Earth’s atmosphere is being changed at an unprecedented rate by pollutants resulting
from human activities, inefficient and wasteful fossil fuel use and the effects of rapid
population growth in many regions. Global climate is changing because of the build up in
the atmosphere of carbon dioxide methane, nitrous oxide, the CFC’s (powerful greenhouse
gases as well as destroyers of stratospheric ozone), and other greenhouse gases produced by
fossil fuel burning, by deforestation and by producing food for the rapidly increasing population
at a global level.
Wasteland Reclamation
What is land degradation? Land degradation refers to the physical or chemical processes,
which make land, unfit for a variety of purposes like agriculture, commercial, residential
etc. Why land becomes degraded? Geological processes and anthropogenic activities are
chiefly responsible for land degradation. Can degraded land be reclaimed or rejuvenated? To
answer this grave question we have Central Arid Zone Research Area (CAZRA) at Jodhpur
concerned with the conservation of land.
During recent years increase in human activity has led to the degradation of habitat
including cultivated land forests. Mangroves etc. About 50% of the land throughout the
planet is arid with problem of acidity and salinity. Restoration of these areas is a matter
of concern for developed as well as developing countries. However, in sites method are
relatively in efficient. With the advent of biotechnology however a number of opportunities
for ‘recovery of degraded land have arisen through manipulation of biological systems.
Wasteland
Land, which does not give enough economic return or is otherwise useless, can broadly
be termed as wasteland. National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) in the ministry
or Environment and Forest have defined wasteland as that land which is degraded and is
presently lying unutilized. Further it has classified it into two categories as i) Culturally
wasteland and ii) Non-cultural wasteland. Characteristics features of wasteland can be
summarized as under:
• The land becomes ecologically unstable and unproductive.
• Land that has nearly or completely lost its topsoil.
• Land that has developed toxicity in the zone of roots for the growth of most plants.
Land Reclamation
It is a process of making an uncultivable land fit for cultivation which is then said to
have been reclaimed. Generally it is carried out either by temporary or permanent control.
Temporary Control Includes
1. Ploughing of salt-’surface crust deeply into the soil.
2. Removing surface accumulation from the soil.
3. Neutralizing the effects of certain salts by use of other salts or acids.
Permanent Control Includes
1. Adequate lowering of water table.
2. Satisfactory water infiltration.
3. Leaching excess salts out of the soil.
4. Intelligent management of soil.
Physical Improvements Involves
1. Applying enough water.
2. Keeping drains open and in good repair.
3. Preventing excessive evaporation.
A few biotechnological methods are described below: .
(i) Reforestation — through micro propagation
(ii) Improvement in soil — by mycorrhize
(iii)Improvement of soil — through N2 fixation
(iv) Development of stress tolerant plant through biotechnology manipulation.
(v) Toxic site reclamation through selective engineer microbes.
Reforestations (Micro Propagation)
Ex situ conservation activities have been carried out through establishment of gene
banks. They have become particularly important for the conservation of crop varieties or
Improvement of crops and & a forestation programmes. The UNEP has advocated for in-situ
and ex-situ conservation efforts. However, funds for ex-situ conservation have been enhanced
recently. A special emphasis has been given to a forestation since forest is a good source of
food, fodder, fiber and pulp. Moreover they help in maintaining climatic stability and
biodiversity. It has been shown that degraded lands can be effectively used and restored by
planting forests. Using trees of wide adaptability and productivity for this purpose clonal
propagation method have been prescribed rather than using seeds of uncertain genetic
quality. Clonal micro propagation can be achieved through techniques of tissue culture.
It has been estimated that multiplication state of 100-200 per year is technically possible
for many species towards this objective genotypes capable of growing well on degraded land
have been selected for mass propagation/multiplication.
The clonal multiplication involves 4 steps.
1. Maintaining an aseptic culture.
2. Shoot multiplication using apical meristem or buds.
3. Rooting of in vitro forms shoots.
4. Acclimatization and transfer of micro propagated plantlets to the field.
According to an estimate in 1990 500 million plants of diverse nature were produced
through micro propagation in 60 countries. In New Zealand large number of micro propagation
plantlets – Pine trees (Pinus radiata) are been used and it is estimated that 2 million
plantlets were in the field in the year 1992.
Stress Tolerant Plant
A large number of biotic factors can create stress to the plant as well as animals. The
survival of plant under such stress conditions like deserts marshland saline acidic and
alkaline condition can be manipulated by suitable strategies. Efforts are under-way for
development of plant resistance to such conditions using biotech methods. Cell lines exhibiting
resistance or tolerance to salt stress have been selected in a large number of plant species
and can be used to reclaim degraded land suffering from salinity.
These are as follows:
Brassica sp. Capsicum annum
Cieer arietinum Citrus aurantium
C. sinensis Dacus carota
Nicotiana tobaccum Oryzae sativa
Triticum aeslivium Sapiendus trifoliala
There are several species of trees that exhibit moderate resistance to salinity that can
be used for reclamation of saline soils. These are Prosobis, Spicigera, Beautea monosperma,
Terminalia ballacca. Efforts are being made to understand the basis of salt tolerance and
isolate the gene responsible for this attribute so that salt tolerant plant can be developed
through genetic engineering. Attempts have been made to develop acidic resistant crops.
Man made synthetic crop ‘triticale’ has been found to be suitable in acidic soils, in countries
like: Poland, Kenya. & Mexico, on dry and sandy soils e.g. Brazil, on alkaline and calcareous
soils e.g. Spain, USA, on mineral, deficient & high boron soils.
Methods For Reclaiming Land
1. Reclamation & management of saline and alkaline soils can be done through:
Alkali soils usually contain excessive amounts of sodium and therefore have a poor
physical condition. To be reclaimed these soils must be changed chemically and improved
physically. The chemical changes consist of exchanging calcium for sodium and thus leaching
away the Na salts. Application of PO4 fertilizers is usually recommendable for low phosphorous
containing soils.
2. Reclamation of waterlogged land:
Agricultural land is said to be water logged when its fertility is affected by the height
of water table, due to flooding of root zone of plants, ill-aeration results. They can be made
productive by providing efficient surface drainage and sub-surface drainage:
1. Pipe/tile drains
2. Deep open trenches
3. Reclamation of soils damaged by sea water:
Areas near seacoasts suffer occasional flooding by seawater. In such cases soils
have reclaimed by pumping out the excess salts, water & drainage e.g. Netherlands.
4. Reclamation of mined wasteland:
Mining and its allied works have ravaged the land surface. To reclaim such ravaged
lands species selected should be able to quickly grow and effectively stabilize and improve
the soil. Mixture of grasses rather than woody perennials is preferred.
Reclamation Work In India
In India reclamation of limestone & rock phosphate mines in Dehradun and Mussourie
has been successfully accomplished with the help of Pinus, Ledrus, Acacia sp. The story of
degeneration and regeneration of Jhabua-poor tribal districts of Madhya Pradesh bordering
Gujarat is also satisfactory. It was reclaimed with watershed development in mid 1990′ s
under the Rajiv Gandhi Mission. In 1993, the intervention of a NGO, the Samaj Pragati
Sahyog in Neemkheda, a remote Village in Dewas district of M.P. took a number of watershed
development activities. An area of nearly 300 m2 has been reclaimed in Baiera Village
(Kangra, H.P.) by an old co-operative farming society (1965-66).
Conclusion
All these instances show that the regeneration of the environment is possible with
political will, competent and committed bureaucratic support, people’s participation &
enforcement of stringent laws.
Consumerism and Waste Products
Increase in demand on depleting resources is never-ending and human beings quest to
achieve breakthroughs in technical advancements will never be final. People to satisfy their
wants and lead a more comfortable life relate the concept of consumerism to increased usage
of consumer goods. People easily adapt to disposable life-style as it leads to a cut down on
household chores. The market forces devise such things to sell comfort to people, which
attract people, the most. Soon people realize that comfort has become the necessity of life.
The Indian market trend and culture is fast adapting to the western society where packed
food material and other life supporting commodities are readily available in packed condition.
Market strategies set to work trying new tactics to get consumers buy more. People in turn
make consumption a way of their life, which leads to generation of solid Waste problems.
People consume and throwaway the refuge at an ever-growing rate.
Packed food resource consumption is, in itself a great problem to deal with. We get easy
food supply even in aeroplanes and trains in packed condition. Besides our daily life activities
related to consumption of flour, vegetable, milk, butter, marketing of household goods and
others all takes place through plastic bags, paper bags, tin cans and others. Plastic bags are
non-biodegradable. So when they are thrown away, they create havoc that is potentially
eternal. Municipal reports from Assam and Haryana speak of drains clogged by discarded
plastic bags, backflow in sewage pipes, and disease spreading through pond-like accumulation
of sewage, which also serves as sites of mosquito breeding.
Nations with high standard of living generate more of solid waste than developing
countries. This causes an ever-increasing burden of garbage, which in turn is related to their
disposal problems. Even land filling and other methods of disposal have their own limitations.
We need ample of land to bury, burn or dispose waste. Ash from incineration is also a major
problem because the ash contains lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic in various proportions
from batteries, lighting fixtures and pigments. The toxic substances are more concentrated
in the ash than in the original garbage and can lead to water pollution. Case studies shows
that even land beneath landfills get polluted and cause air pollution above the ground and
water pollution below the ground.
The most fundamental way to reduce waste is to prevent it from ever becoming waste.
Another way market operations reduce waste is by making consumer products in concentrated
form. Municipal composting is another source-reduction technique. On an individual level,
we can all attempt to reduce the amount of waste we generate. Every small personal
commitment from each of us could have the cumulative result of a significant magnitude in
reducing the solid waste production.
Residues and Wastes
As man engages in the activities associated with living, wastes are produces, these are
products, which have no apparent useful purpose, or they are of such marginal utility that
recovery is uneconomical. Such products include human, residential, agricultural, commercial
and industrial wastes of all kinds. The continuous removal and safe disposal of these wastes
is essential to the continued existence of any community. These wastes may be solid, liquid
or gaseous. Bodily discharges have historically been considered to be very hazardous to
mankind. Intestinal diseases are readily transmitted where water or food is contaminated
directed or indirectly by human wastes. Such wastes also provide a medium for fly breeding.
Food scraps and waste food constitute garbage. When combined with other household waste,
residential refuse is generated. The organic portion will attract and sustain flies and rats.
Where wastes are water-carried, pollution of water supplies may occur. Commercial and
industrial liquid wastes may contain particulate and chemical pollutants.
Many activities of man-driving an automobile, generating electric power, processing
chemicals and petroleum, manufacturing certain products, disposal of wastes – may result,
if uncontrolled, in the discharge of solid particles and gaseous pollutants to the atmosphere.
Excessive pollution of the air has been cited as a cause of disease and death. In summary,
these wastes, if improperly handled endanger man’s life support systems.
The Environment Protection Act, 1986
(No. 29 of 1986) An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment
and for matters connected therewith. Whereas decisions were taken at the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment held at Stokholm in June 1972, in which India
participated, to take appropriate steps for the protection and improvement of human
environment;
Short Title, Extent and Commencement
1. This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2. It extends to the whole of India.
3. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification
in the Official Gazette, appoint and different dates may be appointed for different
provisions of this Act and for different areas.
The Act clearly states and explain each and every term very precisely like environment,
environmental pollutants, environmental pollution, handling, hazardous substance, occupier,
prescribed.
General Powers of the Central Government
Power of Central Government to take measures to protect and improve environment.
1. Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government shall have the power
to take all such measures, as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of
protecting and improving the quality of the environment.
2. Planning and execution of a nationwide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution;
3. Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
4. Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from
various sources.
5. Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of
industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out
subject to certain safeguards;
6. Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
7. Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as are
likely to cause environmental pollution;
8. Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of
environmental pollution;
9. Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other
processes, materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions touch
authorities, officers or persons as if may consider necessary to take steps for the
prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;
10. Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution.
Air Pollution Act, 1981
An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for the
establishment, with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring
on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters’
connected therewith. Whereas decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on
the Human Environment hold in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to
take appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the earth which,
among other things, include the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution
and whereas it is considered necessary to implement the decisions aforesaid in so far as they
relate to the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution.
Short title, extent and commencement
1. This Act may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
2. It extends to the whole of India.
3. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification
in the official Gazette, appoint.
The Act clearly states and explain each and every term very precisely air pollutant, air
pollution, approved appliances, approved fuel, automobile, central board, chimney, control
equipment, emission, industrial plant, member, occupier, prescribed, state board.
Water Pollution Act, 1974
An Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining
or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out
the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for
conferring on and assigning to such Board powers and functions relating thereto and for
matters connected therewith. Whereas it is expedient to provide for the prevention and
control of water pollution and the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water, for
the establishment, with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the
prevention and control of water pollution and for conferring on and assigning to such Boards
powers and functions relating thereto.
Short title, application and commencement
1. This Act may be called the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974,
2. It applies in the first instance to the whole of the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and. Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and the Union Territories; and it
shall apply to such other State which adopts this Act by resolution passed in that
behalf under clause (1) of the article 252 of the Constitution.
3. It shall come into force, at once in the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kamataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and in the Union Territories; and in any other
State which adopted this Act under clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution on
the date of such adoption and any reference in this Act to the commencement of
this Act shall, in relation to any State or Union Territory, mean the date on which
this Act comes into force in such State of Union territory.
The Act clearly states and explain each and every term very precisely like board,
central board, member, outlet, pollution, prescribed, sewage effluent, sewer, state board,
state government, trade effluent etc.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
An Act to provide for the protection of wild animals and birds and for matters connected
therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto.
Short title, extent and commencement
1 This Act may be called the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972
2 It extends, in the first instance, to the whole of the States of Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal and to all the Union territories; and it
shall also extend to such other State as may adopt this Act by resolution passed
in that behalf in pursuance of CI. (1) of Art. 252 of the Constitution.
It shall come into force in a State of Union territory to which it extends, or may
become extended in future, on such date as the Central Government may, by
notification, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions
of this Act or for different States or Union territories.
The Act clearly states and explains each and every term very precisely like animal,
animal article, big game, board, captive animal, cattle, chief wild life warden, closed area,
collector, commencement of this act, dealer, director, game reserve, government property,
habitat, hunting, land, license, manufacturer, meat, national park, notification, permit person,
prescribed, sanctuary, small game, special game, state government, taxidermy, trophy,
uncured trophy, vehicle, vermin, weapon, wild animal, wild life, wile life warden.
Forest Conservation Act
India’s Forest Policies
Development of forest is guided by the policies adopted by a nation to manage them.
Scientific forestry was adopted in India since over a century back. Country’s first forest
policy was enunciated in 1894. After the Independence Indian Republic therefore formulated
her National Forest Policy in 1952. The National Commission on Agriculture established in
1970 went into the forestry situation in the country and suggested a need for a new forest
policy, in their Report of 1976. The Constitution of the Independent India placed forests
under the State List of the Seventh Schedule in 1950. The States were vested with the
administration of the forests. The Constitution has recognized the importance of protection
of forests and their improvement. It is stipulated in Article 48-A, that the State shall
endeavourer to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and
wildlife of the country.
The period between 1950 and today has witnessed large-scale depletion of forests and
attrition of forestlands. Forests lands were cleared and diverted to other uses like agriculture,
industries, hydroelectric projects, settlement of displaced persons and foreign refugees, etc.
This also resulted in diminishing wildlife in the country due to loss of their habitat. Realizing
the importance of forests for the well being of the nation, the Parliament, by the 42nd
Amendment to the Constitution, in 1976, brought Forests and Wildlife on the concurrent list
in Seventh Schedule. In the year 1980, the President of India promulgated the Forest
(Conservation) Ordinance, 1980, which put severe restrictions on de-reservation of forest or
use of forestland for non-forest purposes, without prior approval of the Central Government.
Forests play three important roles in national economy of any country, they are:
(a) protective, (b) productive, and (c) as a source of accessory benefits. This calls for an
effective legislation. The Indian Forest Act, 1927, is in force today for the same purpose.
Similarly a comprehensive legislation for the protection of wildlife and nature is to be found
in the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Forest Policy of 1894
Enunciated in 1894 India’s first Forest Policy laid down ‘public benefit’ as the sole
objective of the administration of public forest. The Policy suggested the maintenance of
forests in hilly areas for preservation of climatic and physical conditions and for protection
of cultivated plains below from the divesting action of hill torrents. Forests with valuable
timbers were to be managed on commercial lines. The forests of inferior quality were to be
managed mainly in the interest of local population.
Guiding Principles for Forest Policy
India’s Forest Policy was revised once again in 1988. The main plan of the revised
Forest Policy of 1988 is protection, conservation and development of forests. Its aims are
(i) maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and restoration of ecological
balance, (ii) conservation of natural heritage, (iii) check on soil erosion and denudation in
catchments area of rivers, lakes and reservoir, (iv) check on extension of sand dunes in
desert areas of Rajasthan and along coastal tracts, (v) substantial increase in forest/tree
cover through massive a forestation and social forestry programmes, (vi) steps to meet
requirements of fuel for wood, fodder, minor forest produce and soil timber of rural and
tribal populations, (vii) increase in productivity of forest to meet the national needs; (viii)
encouragement of efficient utilization of forest produce and optimum substitution of wood,
and (ix) steps to create massive people’s participation with involvement of women to achieve
the objectives and minimize pressure on existing forests.
Forest Conservation
The increasing destruction and degradation of forests and tree lands especially in the
Himalayas and other hill areas, is leading to heavy erosion of topsoil, erratic rainfall and
recurring floods. Another area of concern has been degradation of forests due to biotic
pressure. Guidelines have been framed for preparation of working plans and felling in
forests. Some of the salient features are (i) working plans should be up-to-date and stress
conservation (ii) preliminary working plan should have a multidisciplinary approach,(iii) tribal rights and concessions should be high-lighted along with control mechanisms,(iv) grazing should be studied in detail and specific prescriptions should cover fodderpropagation, (v) shifting cultivation and encroachments need to be controlled (vi) clearfelling with artificial regeneration should be avoided as far as possible and clear-fellingblocks should not exceed ten hectare in hills and 25 hectare area in plains, and (vii) banningall felling above 1,000 meter altitude for a few years should be considered to allow theseareas to recover. Critical areas in hills and catchments areas prone to landslips, erosion, etc.should be totally protected and quickly afforested.Issues involved in enforcement of Environmental, Legislation.Politics and the environment cannot be separated. The late 1980s and early 1990switnessed a new international concern about the environment, both in the developed anddeveloping nations of the world. Environmentalism is also seen as a growing factor ininternational relations. This concern is leading to international cooperation where onlytension has existed before. While there exists no world political body that can enforceinternational environmental protection, the list of multilateral environmental organizations
is growing.
There is no international legislature with authority to pass laws; nor are there
international agencies with power to regulate resources on a global scale. An international
court at the Hague in the Netherlands has no power to enforce its decisions. Nations can
simply ignore the court if they wish. This environmental “coming of age” is reflected in the
broadening of intellectual perspective. Governments used-to be preoccupied with domestic
environmental affairs. Now, they are beginning to broaden their scope to confront problems
that cross international borders, such as transboundary air and water pollution, and threats
of a planetary nature, such as stratospheric ozone depletion and climatic warming. It is
becoming increasingly evident that only decisive mutual action can secure the kind of world
we seek.
Factors Affecting International Environmental Laws
• Identification and gravity of the problem: It is easier tofind a solution to a
problem once it is widely acknowledged as critical.
• Statistics: Sufficient fieldwork should be done to collect the required data on the
extent of the problem to find possible solutions.
• Geo-Location: To identify the sources and cause of problems and the areas under
its effects.
• Law and order: Whether countries have laws protecting the environment and
administrative proceedings to enforce those laws.
• National and international pressures: Who favors and who opposes action on
the issue in each country.
• Infrastructure (Institutions and policies): Whether there is a mechanism in
place for cooperative action among the interested countries.
• International cooperation: Whether the affected countries have a tradition of
cooperation or conflict.



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