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15/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

world history part 4

 Zorastrianism (Persian religion) was founded by
Zorathushtrar.
 The Parsies of India believe in Zorastrianism.
 Ahuramazda is the God of the Zorastrian religion.
 ‘Ahriman’ was considered as the evil spirit by
the Persians.
 ‘Avesta’ (Zend Avesta) is the sacred book of
Zorastrianism.
 ‘Avesta’ is known as ‘Persian Bible’
Greek Civilisation
 Greek Civilisation dates back to 800 BC
 Greece is in the European continent.
 Greece is on the coast of Mediterranean sea.
 The civilisation existed in Greece, before the
Greeks was known as Aegean Civilization.
 Early Greek immigrants were known as Ionians.
 Greeks were collectively known as Hellenes.
Hence their civilization was known as Hellenistic Civilization.
 Homer, a blind poet, composed Greek epics ‘Illiad’
and ‘Odyssey’.
 Homer lived in the 9th century BC.
 Democracy was originated in Greece. Greek Democracy was direct democracy.
 Greek Civilisation reached the Zenith of its
progress during the period of Pericles, a ruler of
Athens. His Age is considered as the ‘Golden
Age of Athens. Under Pericles the city of Athens
got the name ‘‘the School of Hellas’’.
 The civilisation of Greek city states is known as
‘Classical Civilisation’.
 Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Mascedonia etc
were the major city states in Greece.
 Pindar was a famous Greek Lyric Poet.
 Aesceles was the greatest of the Greek dramatists, who wrote famous tragedies.
 Greeks were the first to introduce Vowels in the
alphabet.
 Euripides and Aristophenes were the other famous Greek dramatists.
 Herodotuswho, wrote
about the Persian war
was a Greek historian.
He is considered as
the Father of History.
 Demosthenese was a
world famous Greek
orator
 Thales of Meletus is
considered as the father of Greek Mathematics
 Pythagoraswho made
great contributions in
Geometry was a Greek.
 Anaxagoras, Euclid etc were famous Greek Mathematicians.
 Hippocrates, who is considered as the father of
Medical Science was a Greek.
 Leopold Van Ranke, a German historian is considered as the father of Modern History.
 Thucydides another great Greek historian wrote
the history of the Peloponnesian war between
Athens and Sparta.
 Socrates the Greatest of the Greek philosphers
was forced to commit suicide by drinking Hemlock a poison, in 399 BC.
 Zantippee was the wife of Socrates.
 Plato was the student of Socrates.
 Plato’s original name was Aristocles.
 Plato founded a university named ‘Academy’ in
Athens.
 Republic was the famous work of Plato.
 Aristotle was the famous student of Plato.
 Aristotle was the tutor of Alexander the Great.
 Aristotle founded a school named Lycium in Athens.
 Aristotle is considered as the father of Biology,
Politics and the Science of Reasoning.
 Aristotle was considered as a ‘Walking University’.
 Hipparchus calculated the diameter of the Moon.
 Erathosthenes calculated the circumference of the
Earth.
 The first Olympic Games were held at Olympia in
Greece in 776 BC.
 The Roman Emperor Theo-dosius banned Olympics in 394 BC. (more details about Olypics could
be seen in sports and games portion)
Macedonian Empire
 Mascedonia was a Greek city state. It became a
prominent empire under its king Philip II (359 –
336 BC)
 Alexander the Great, the son and successor of
Philip II, was born in 350 BC and became the ruler
in 337 BC.
 Alexander defeated the Persian ruler Darius III.
 Alexander captured Egypt and founded the city
of Alexandria there.
 Alexander invaded India in 326 BC and defeated
Porus, the ruler of Taxila.
 He died at the age of 33 in 323 BC at Babilonia.
 Ptolemy, a commander of Alexander is considered as the Father of Cartography.
 Archemedes the originator of the law of specific
gravity lived in the Hellenistic Age.
Roman Civilisation
 Roman Civilisation developed on the banks of
river Tiber in Italy.
 City of Rome was known as ‘‘City of Seven Hills’’.
 City of Rome was founded in BC 753 by two brothers Romulas
and Romus.
 The idea of
Republicoriginated in Rome.
 ‘Senate’ was
the Roman
Assembly of
Elders
 Punic Wars were fought between Rome and
Carthage.
 Julius Caesar one of the prominent rulers of Rome
was born in 102BC.
 Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44BC by Casius,
Brutus and other senators.
‘‘I came, I saw, I conquered’’ His famous saying
 Caesar modified the Old Calendar which had only
355 days, New Calendar came to be known as
Julian Calendar.
 Later this calendar was modified by Pope Grigory
XIII and came to be known as Grigorian Calendar.
 ‘Caesarism’ means autocracy or imperial
supermacy.
 Constantine was the first Roman king who accepted Christianity.
 The city of Constantinople was founded by
Constantine.
 Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453.
 The Greatest contribution of Romans to the world
is their code laws.
 Vergil the author of ‘Aenid’ was famous Roman
poet.
 Lucricius the author of ‘‘On the Nature of
Things’’ was famous Epicurian Philosopher.
 Pliny wrote the famous book ‘Historia Naturalis’
 Romans were the inventors of concrete and the
technique of binding stone and bricks.
 ‘‘The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire’’ is a
famous book written by Edward Gibbon.
Major Religions of the World
Judaism- Christianity – Islam
 Judaism is one of the oldest religions of the world.
 Abraham is considered as the father of the Jews.
 Jews are the believers of one God, Jehovah.
 Jews are the selected people of Jehovah
 Mosses is considered as the founder of Judaism.
 Mosses freed Egypt from slavery and gave the
Rome ‘‘Ten Commandments’’ at the Mount of Senai.
 Judaism is considered as the mother religion of
Christianity and Islam.
 ‘Thorah’ is the Sacred text of the Jews
 Thorah is included in the Old Testament of Bible.
 The Hebrew word ‘Thorah’ means ‘to lead’ .
 Synagogue is the worshipping centre of the Jews.
 The White Jews Synagogue at Mattanchery in
Cochin is a worshipping centre of Jews in Kerala.
 Jarusalem was the famous pilgrim centre of the
Jews.
 The worshipping centre in Jerusalem was constructed by King Solomon in BC 1000.
 It was destructed by the Babilonian king
Nebukanisar in 587 BC.
 Jarusalem is an equally holy place for the Jews,
the Christians and the Muslims.
Christianity
 Christianity was originated from Judaism.
 Jesus Christ was born in 4 BC at Bethlahem in
the small town of Nasreth in Galeleo.
 King Herodos of Yuda was a contemporary of
Jesus Christ.
 Roman emperors Augustus and Thiberius Caesar had direct contact to Jesus Christ.
 Those who believe in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ came to be known as Christians.
 Christianity was spread to Kerala by St. Thomas
Aposthel in 52 AD (Crangannore).
 Bible has four Gospels. They are the Gospels of
Mathews, Markose, Yohannan and Luckose.
 Christ was crusified by the Jews in 29 AD.
 Christ spoke in the Aramic Language which was
a mixture of Cyriac and Hebrew.
 Roman Emperor Constantine gave freedom to the
Roman Christians through his Milan Proclamation (AD 313)
 Theodosius proclaimed Christianity as state religion.
 The word ‘Bible’ means book.
 Bible is divided into two – Old Testament and New
testament.
 ‘Revelation’ is the last book of Bible.
 Tamil was the first Asian language in which Bible
was printed (1715)
 Ponthios Pelathos was the Roman Governor who
tried Jesus Christ.
 Crusification of Christ was on a Friday, now it is
observed as ‘Good Friday’.
Islam
 Hijas is known as the birthplace of Islam. The
Island which includes Hijas is known as the Island of Arabs.
 Ka aba was the ancient worshipping centre in
Mecca.
 Muhammed Nabi was born in AD 570 in the
Khuraisi tribe in Mecca. His father was Abdulla
and mother was Amina.
 The Word Islam was originated from the root of
Aslama.
 Invisible forces which acts as per the directions
of the god are known as Malakku.
 Khadeeja was the first to receive the message of
Muhammed.
 Muhammed Nabi fled from the Mecca to Medina
to escape from the Khuraisis on 24th September
AD 622. This day is known as Hijra.
 The followers who accompanied Muhammed to
Medina are known as Muhajirs.
 He died on 8th June 632 AD at Medina.
 Ka’ aba was the first centre established in the
world worship Allah.
 Koran, Hadis and Ijmah are the basis of Islamic
law.
 Khalifa became the head of Islam after the death
of Muhammed.
 Abu Beker, Umar, Usman and Ali were the
Khalifas.
 In 1924 Mustafa Kamal Pasha of Turkey abolished the title of Khalifa.
 Koran is the codification of revelations given
through the Gabriel Angel to Muhammed.
 It contains 114 chapters. It took 22 years to have
the complete revelations to Nabi.
 Koran was codified in AD 633 during the period
of Khalifa Abu Beker.
 There are two divisions in Islam – Shias and
Sunnis.
 Shias are the followers of Ali.
 Iran is the only Shia majority nation in the world.
American Civilisation
 Mayan, Inca and Aztec are the main native American civilisations flourished before the European
colonization of America.
 First American Civilisation developed between
1000BC and 1000 AD.
 Mayan books written on the bark of trees were
known as Codid.
 Mayan Civilisation declined in the 15th century
due to Spanish invasion.
 Toltecs were another Amarindian people who
developed their civilisation to the south of Mexican plateau. They constructed pyramids like the
Egyptians.
 Floating Gardens built by the Aztecs were known
as Chinambus.
 Aztecs believed in the worships of serpents
(Snakes)
 The capital of Aztec was Tinochtitlans it was captured by Spanish conquerors in 1519 AD, thus
ended the Aztec Civilisation.
 Most civilised of the Amarindian civilizations
was the Inca, which developed in Peru (South
America)
 Inca was politically the most developed
Amarindian tribes.
 Maize, Potato, Tomato, Pumpkin, Pineapple,
Ground nuts, Guava, Tobacco, Cocaine etc were
made to use for the first time by the Inca people
of Peru.
 The Sun Temple at Cusco was a contribution of
the Inca Civilization.
 Red Indians were the aborginals of America. They
were named so by Columbus.
 Christopher Columbus discovered America in
1492.
 America derived its name from Americo Vespuci,
an Italian explorer.
 Copper was the first metal used by Americans.
 Maize cultivation was the base of American
Civilisation.
African Civilisation
 It is believed that human beings evolved in Africa.
 The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach
Africa.
 City of Moro in Central Africa is known as
Berminhatam of Central Africa.
 First country formed in the western part of Africa
is Ghana. Ghana is also known as the ‘Gold
Coast’.
 Islam spread to Africa in the 8th Century.
 Vasco-da-Gama was the first European to reach
the Cape of Good Hope, the southern most tip of
Africa.
 Bandus are the Negroes of Central and South
Africa. Bandu means humans.
 The dark skinned race of Africa are called Negroes.
 Swahilis are the people living in the parts ofKenya
and Tanzania. Zulus are the people living in South
Africa, belonging to the Bandu family.
Middle Ages
 The attack of Roman Empire and its destruction
by the Barbarians in 455 AD marks the end of the
ancient world and the beginning of Middle Ages.
 The word Barbarian means uncultured.
 Early Middle Ages is known as ‘Dark Ages’. It
ended up to the 11th century

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15/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

world history part 3

Pre-Historic Period
 The Pre-historic period is divided into four distinct periods.
Paleololithic Period (Old Stone Age) 5,000,000 –
10,000 BC
Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age)10,000 – 4000
BC
Neolithic period (New stone Age)6000 – 1000 BC
Chalcolithic Period (Metal Age)
 The earliest known primate (Plesiandapis) appeared on the earth towads 70,000,000 BC.
 The possible ancestor of hominids (Proconsul)
appeared in East Africa towards 20,000,00 BC
 Australopithecus was the first hominids on the
earth, which appeared in East Africa towards
3,700,000 BC.
 Homohabilis was the first hominid tool maker,
which appeared in Africa towards 2,100,000 BC.
 Zinjanthropus, which was found in the Great
Rift Valley of Central Africa, is considered to be
the earliest in the human species.
 ‘Java Man’ existed some seven lakh years ago in
Java and ‘Peking Man’ who existed some three
lakh years ago excavated from Peking in China
are some humans of the Paleolithic Period.
 Most famous Paleolithic man was the
Neandarthal Man who was discovered from
Germany.
 Cromagnan (France) and Grimaldi (Itali) men belonged to the Middle Stone Age.
 Paleolithic people used tools and implements
made of rough stone.
 They ate raw flesh and wild fruits and vegetables.
They had no idea of agriculture. They belonged
to the Negrito race.
 Paleolithic men led a nomadic life, ie, wandering
from one place to another.
 Neolithic Age means the New Stone Age.
 People learnt the art of cultivation and the
Neolithic Age was the food producing stage.
 They started using polished and sharp stone
implements.
 Man began to domesticate animals during the
Neolithic Age. Dog was the first animal domesticated by man.
 Wheat and Barley were the earliest cereals grown
by man.
 ‘Potters Wheel’ was invented in the Neolithic Age.
 Paleolithic Age is known as the ‘Age of Hunters’
while the Neolithic Age is known as the ‘Age of
Farmers’.
 Most polished weapon of the Neolithic Age was
the ‘Stone axe’.
 Man discovered the use of jute and began to use
cloth made of jute during the Neolithic period.
 Early men started the settled life in the Neolithic
period.
 Earliest human villages appeared towards 6000BC
in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
 The Barter system of exchange came into practice during the Neolithic period.
 Family life also began during the Neolithic Age.
 The concept of ‘State’ also originated during the
Neolithic period.
 Chalcolithic Age is known as the Metal Age.
 First metal used by man was copper
 Copper was first used to make ornaments and
tools.
 The period when man began to use Bronze tools
and weapons is known as Bronze Age.
 The period when man began to use iron is known
as Iron Age.
MAJORHUMANRACESOF THEWORLD
 People living in Africa, Arabia, India, Malaysia,
Australia and Tansania belonged to the Negroid
Race.
 ‘Pigmies’ seen in Africa, South East Asia and
Indonesia is a subgroup of the Negroids.
 Majority of modern Human race belonged to the
Mongloid race.
 People living in Japan, China, Indonesia, Formosa
Tibet etc belonged to the Mongloid race.
 People lived in Ancient Egypt belonged to the
Hemitic race.
 Ancient Babilonians, Hebrews, Phoenesians,
Arabs etc belonged to the Semitic race.
 Semitic, Hemitic and Indo-Europeans are the subgroups of the Caucasoid race.
ORIGINOFLANGUAGESANDWRITING
 Man began to speak meaningfully during the
Neolithic Period.
 English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Greek,
Russian, Persian, Sanskrit and American languages belonged to the Indo-European or Aryan
language group
 Hebrew, Arabic, Abyssenian early Assirian and
Phoenesian languages belonged to the Semitic
group of languages.
 Languages spoken by the people lived around
Mediterranean sea were of the Hemitic group.
 Lapis, Finnish, Magyar,Tartar, Manchu, Mongol
etc, belonged to the Turanean group of languages.
 Egyptians were the first to use Phonetic writing.
 The early writing of the Egyptians were known as
Hieroglyphics.
 Phoeniseans were considered as the originators
of the modern pattern of writing.
SUMERIAN OR MESOPOTAMIAN
CIVILIZATION (3000 -1600 BC)
 Sumerian civilisation flourished on the banks of
rivers Euphrates and Tigris later came to be
known as Mesopotamian civilisation
 The word Mesopotamia means land between rivers.
 The name Mesopotamia was given by the Greeks.
 The area where Mesopotamian civilisation existed
belonged to modern Iraq.
 The northern part of Mesopotamia was known as
Assiria and southern part was known as
Babilonia.
 The first dynasty in the world was established at
Ur in Sumeria in 3000 BC.
CUNIEFORM WRITING
The Sumerians are credited with the invention
of a distinctive system of writing known as
Cunieform. They wrote on clay tablets using
wedge shaped letters. The name Cunieform was
originated from the Latin word ‘cuneus’ which
means wedge. The Cunieform script was
desciphered by Henry Rawlinson.
 Ur, Urukh, Lagash, Uma, Nippor were the major
cities of the Sumerians.
 The Sumerian Empire declined towards BC 2650
due to the attack of the Accadians.
 The chief architect of the Acadian empire was
Sargon.
 Dungi was the most important ruler of the
Sumerians.
 The writing system of the Sumerians was known
as Cunieform.
 Mesosoptamian seals throw light on the trade
relation between the Indus people and the
Sumerians.
 The Mesopotamians invented wheel and glassware.
 Mesopotamian civilization is considered to be the
world’s first urban civilisation.
 Mesopotamians discovered the system of Geometry. It was later called ‘‘Pythagorus Theorem’’.
 A Lunar Calendar based on the Moon was one
of the major achievements of the Sumerians.
 Mesopotamians were worshippers of multi Gods.
 Their major God was the Sky God ‘Anu’.
 Mesopotamians were the first to invent the system of Multiplication.
 Empires, water supply system, use of gold and
silver for transaction, code of laws, libraries, educational centres, poetry, literature, sculpture, palaces, arches, pillars, domes, slavery, autocracy
imperialism etc first originated in Sumeria.
 Hammurabi is known as the founder of Early
Ba bilo nian
Empire.
 H ammu r ab i
was responsible for the introduction of a
code of conduct
to the
Mesopotamians.
It was based
on the principle of ‘‘an eye for eye and tooth for a tooth’’.
 Babilonian people invented water clock and sundial to know the time.
 Assirians were credited for the invention of the
system of dividing a circle into 360 degrees.
 Mesopotamian civilisation is also known as the
‘melting pot of civilisation’.
Egyptian Civilisation (3000 BC –
1750 BC)
 Egyptian civilisation flourished on the banks of
Nile river.
 Egyptian kings were known as ‘Pharoh’
 ‘Pharoh’ means one who lives in a mansion.
 ‘Hyksus’ were a semetic group of people who
captured Egypt towards BC 1750.
 Egyptian Queen Hatsheput is considered as the
first women ruler of the world.
 Ramses III is considered as the last of great
Pharohs of Egypt.
 Egyptians were the first to invent a solar calendar having 365 days with 12 months of 30 days
each.
 Egyptian Sun God
was known as
‘Ra’ or ‘Re’.
 Osiris was the
Goddess of truth
worshipped by the
Egyptians.
 Preserved dead
bodies of the
Egyptians were
known as ‘mummies’. Mummification shows their
belief in life after death.
 Egyptians were responsible for the invention of
Addition, Subtraction and Division.
 The word ‘Chemistry’ was originated from the
Egyptian language.
 Egyptian script was pictographic in nature. It was
known as Hierogliphics.
 The word Hierogliphic means sacred writing. It
consisted of 24 signs. Vowels were not used. The
Egyptian alphabets were deciphered by
Champollion.
 ‘‘The Great Temple of Abu Simbel’’ is known as
the ‘‘Temple of the Rising Sun’’, since the rays
of the rising sun get into the temple.
 Pyramids were the Tombs of Egyptian Pharohs.
 First Pyramid was built about 2700 BC.
 Greatest of the Pyramids was the Great Pyramid
at Giza built by Pharoh Khufu.
 Biggest of the temples built by the Egyptians was
the temple at Karnak.
 Great Pyramid at Giza is the only survivor of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
 Earliest coins were believed to have used by the
Egyptians.
Indus Valley Civilisation
 Indus Valley Civilisation was discovered as a result of the archaeological excavations carried out
in 1920-22 at Mohenjodaro and Harappa (Both in
Pakistan) by R D Banarjee and Dayaram Sahni.
John Marshall was the Director General of the
Archaeological Survey of India at that time (more
details are given in the Indian History part).
Chinese Civilisation
 Chinese Civilisation originated on the banks of
riverHwang Ho.
 Shang dynasty was the first dynasty to rule China
from BC 1750-1125.
 The Qin dynasty established China’s first strong
central government.
 Chin ruler Shih Hwangti was responsible for the
construction of the Great Wall of China to prevent the Huna invasion.
 Shih Hwangti was the founder of Chin dynasty.
 The Great Wall is 1500 mile long and having 20
feet breadth and 20 feet height.
 Early communication of the Chinese was done by
Sphinx
Sphinx was a mythological animal of the
ancient Egyptians. It was
the largest of the Egyptian statues. It has a human head and the body
of a lion. It has 100 feet
length and 70 feet height.
knots made in strings.
 Paper was invented by the Chinese.
 Lao-Tse, Confuciousand Mencious were the three
major Philosophers of ancient China.
 Lao-Tse was the founder of the most important
religion of China known as Taoism.
 Lao-Tse is considered as the ‘‘Chinese Buddha’’
 Confucianism was the new religion founded by
Confucious.
 Siesmograph and Gun Powder were also invented
by the Chinese.
 Tea was invented by the Chinese.
Persian Civilisation
 Persian Civilisation existed in modern Iran
 Persians belonged to the Indo-European race.
 Cyrus was the strongest of the Persian rulers.
 Cyrus is considered as the founder of the Persian Empire.
 Greatest of the Persian rulers was Darius I.
 Darius I was responsible for the foundation of
the ever largest empires of the world.
 The Greeco- Persian conflict began during the
period of Darius I.
 The Battle of Marathon (BC 490) between the
Persians and Athenians was led by Darius I.
 The writing of the Persians was Cunieform,
adopted from the Mesopotamians.
 The Persian priests were known as ‘Maji’.
 The English word ‘Magician’ was originated from
the Persian word ‘Maji’.
Sphinx
Sphinx was a mythological animal of the
ancient Egyptians. It was
the largest of the Egyptian statues. It has a human head and the body
of a lion. It has 100 feet
length and 70 feet height.

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15/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

world history part 2

1998 : Myanmar celebrates its 50th anniversaryof independence. Pope John Paul II visitsCuba.: Sri Lanka celebrates its 50th anniversaryof independence. Communist Manifestocompletes 150 years of publication. USscientists produce the world’s first clonedCalf named Mr. Jefferson.: James Cameron’s Titanic wins 11 Oscarawards.: India conducts five nuclear tests (three on11th May and two on 13th May 1998).Pakistan conducts six nuclear test (5 on28th May and one on 30th May 1998).: France win World Cup Football.: Jose Saramago, the Portuguese novelistwin 1998 Nobel prize for literature.Amartya Sen of India wins 1998 NobelPrize for Economics. John Glenn, 77, theoldest man in space.1999 : Twelve European countries launch single
currency, the Euro.
: The South African Parliament elects
Thabo Mbeki, the country’s new President.
: The US space shuttle, Columbia, blasts
off under the first woman commander
Eileen Collins, after two failed attempts.
: The former New Zealand Prime Minister,
Mike Moore, takes over as the head of the
World Trade Organisation.
: S.R. Nathan, sworn in as Singapore’s sixth
president.
: The 1999 Nobel Prize for Literature goes to
the German Novelist, Günter Grass.
: China celebrates the 50th anniversary of
Communist rule
: Army takes over in Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif
sacked and confined to House.
: World population turns 6 billion.
: The US formally transfers the control over
the Panama Canal to Panama.
2000 : Ananova, the world’s first virtual newsreader, makes her debut on the internet at
http://www.ananova.com.
: At the NPT conference in the United Nations, USA, Russia, France, Britain and
China pledge to eliminate atomic weapons, without setting a time table.
: An e-mail virus I Love You created by a
Filipino creates wide spread damage to
computer systems across the world.
: Fiji’s President declares a state of emergency after a group of gunmen led by
George Speight seize the nation’s first ethnic Indian Prime Minister, Mahendra Pal
Chaudhry and his Cabinet colleagues and
MPs as hostages.
: The North Korean leader, Kim Jong Il and
the South Korean President, Kim Dae
Jung meet at the North Korean capital
Pyongyang. They decide to work for the
unification of the Korean Peninsula.
: The two-day G-15 summit begins in Cairo
(Egypt). It has now 19 members with the
inclusion of Columbia and Iran.
: The International Space Station linked up
smoothly with the Russian-made Zvezda
control module. Zvezda is the first module built solely by Russians.
: George Speight, the leader of the coup
in Fiji, is arrested.
: The US astronomers announce that they
have detected 10 new planets outside the
solar system. It brings the total number of
planets circling other stars, so-called
exoplanets, to 50.
: British Airways suspends Concorde
operations.
: Carl Banks, the Disney Illustrator and creator of Donald Duck passes away.
: Tuvalu, a Pacific island state admitted to
the United Nations as its 189th member in
its first session of the New Millennium in
New York (USA).
: French voters approve a referendum on
shortening the Presidential term to five
years.
: Russia recognises Yugoslav opposition
leader, Vojislav Kostunica’s, historic presidential election victory over Slobodan
Milosevic.
: Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the world’s first
elected woman Prime Minister, passes
away.
: Gao Xingjian, a dissident Chinese novelist and playwright settled in France who
left China in 1987 to settle in France, wins
the Nobel Prize for Literature for 2000 for
his work that has opened new paths for
the Chinese novel and drama.
: Kim Dae Jung, South Korean President,
selected for the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize
for his work towards peace and reconciliation with North Korea that led to a
ground breaking summit with his North
Korean counterpart.
: The Guinness Book of World Records,
sets a new record of its own selling seven
million copies of its first edition of the
new century.
: Hillary Clinton, wife of US President Bill
Clinton, wins the US Senate seat from New
York. Thus, she becomes the first wife of
a President in American history to be
elected to the Senate.
: Margaret Atwood of Canada wins the
coveted Booker Prize 2000 for her novel,
The Blind Assassin.
: Netherlands becomes the first country to
legalise euthanasia, (the mercy killing).
: Nawaz Sharif pardoned off and exiled to
Saudi Arabia.
: George W. Bush declared elected as the 43rd
President of United States.
2001 : The 15-year-old Mir Space Station abandoned
: ANDi the world’s first genetically modified monkey, created.
: The radical Islamic Taliban regime in Afghanistan demolishes two huge statues
of the Buddha at Bamiyan.
: Dennis Tito of the United States becomes
the first person to tour the space.
: Denise Quinones August chosen as the
50th Miss Universe at a function in
Bayamon in Puerto Rico.
: The Organisation of African Union (OAU)
becomes African Union (AU).
: Gen. Pervez Musharraf takes over as the
President of Pakistan.
: United Nations (UN) Secretary General
and V.S. Naipaul win the Nobel Prize For
peace and Literature respectively for 2001.
2002 : Euthanasia or mercy killing comes into
force in Netherlands.
: Robert Mugabe elected President of
Zimbabwe.
: Xanana Gusmao, the independence leader
of East Timor, elected President of the island nation.
: Mark Shuttleworth of South Africa becomes the second space tourist.
: Switzerland becomes the 190th member
of UNO.
: Hamid Karzai elected President of Afghanistan.
: The International criminal Court (ICC)
starts functioning in the Hague (Netherlands)
: The UN Earth Summit held in Johannesburg (South Africa)
: East Timor joins as the 191st member of
the United Nations.
: The 17th Commonwealth Games held in
Manchester (U.K)
: The 14th Asian Games held in Busan
(South Korea)
: Miss Asra Akin crowned as Miss World.
: SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome) outbreak in China and spreads
all over world killing thousands.
2003 : The space shuttle Columbia perished in
space. Seven astronauts including
Dr. Kalpana Chawla died (February).
: The USA and Britain jointly launch
Operation Iraqi Freedom to liberate Iraq
from Sadam Hussain, who build up weapons of mass destruction.
2004 : Spirit and Opportunity land on Mars.
: 28th Summer Olympics was held in Athens in Greece. The USA secured first
place, China stood at second. India won
only one silver.
: Bomb attacks on four Madrid commuter
trains kill 191 and injure hundreds more
: Photos of US soldiers allegedly abusing
Iraqi detainees in Abu Gharaib prison
emerge.
: A team of Russian scientists and another
of US scientists report the discovery of
two new chemical elements. These are elements 113, given the temporary name
Ununtrium (Uut) and element 115 designated Ununpentium (Uup)
: The Iraqi special Tribunal holds the first
hearing in the trial of Saddham Hussian.
: Afghanistan holds its first ever presidential election.
: Scientists discover a new tiny species of
human that lived in Indonesia.
: Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat dies in
Paris.
2005 : NASA’s unmanned. Probe Deep Impact
collided with the comet Tempel-1 on June
3, 2005.
G-8 Summit was held at Gleneagles, Resort, Scotland on July 6-8, 2005
: Muhammed Abbas is sworn in as Palestinian Authority President.
: Taiwan and China agree Temporarily lift
Taipe’s five – decade ban on direct flights
between the two rivals.
: Former Lebanese Prime Minister RafikalHariri is assassinated in a car bombing in
central Beirut close to the harbour.
: The trial of pop star Michael Joseph
Jackson gets underway in Santa Maria
over a year since his arrest on charges of
child molestation.
: American aviator Steve Fosset completes
the first solo fight around the world without refuelling and lands his jet plane in
Salina Kansas.
: Israel open the world’s largest Holocast
museum on Mount Herzi in Jerusalem to
commemorate the six million Jews exterminated by the Nazis.
: Jalal Talabani is sworn in Iraqi President
making him the first non-Arab head of an
Arab nation. Shia leader Irabhim Jaafari
is nominated as the Prime Minister.
: Pope John Paul II, the ‘‘Peoples Pope’’ or
the ‘‘Travelling Pope’’ is laid to rest in
the cryst of St. Peters Baslica in Vatican.
: Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger of Germany is
elected 265 th Pope and is to be known as
Benedict XVI.
: Albanian poet and novelist Ismail Kadareis named the winner of the Man BookerInternational Prize, a brand new laurel forthe world’s finest writers.: Kuwaits first woman Prime MinisterMaasuma al Mubarak, takes out in Parliament.: Junichiro Koizumi is re-elected as Japanese Primier by the new House of Representatives at a special session in Tokyo.: The IAEA and its chief Muhammed ElBaradei get the Nobel Peace Prize for theirwork in Stopping the spread of nuclearweapons.: The Dhaka Declaration decides to set upa SAARC Poverty Alleviation Fund andto declare 2006 – 2015 the SAARC decadeof Poverty Alleviation.: The world’s first facial transplantation isdone on a French woman Isabella Dinoirein Amiens.2006 : US space probe ‘Stardust’ returns toearth carrying precious samples of dustfrom stars and comets.: Chile elects Michaelle Bachelet to be its
first woman President.
: NASA launches the first space mission
to Pluto, as the New Horizons spacecraft
is hurled on a 9-year 4.5 b – KM journey.
: 35th summit of World Economic Forum
opens, in Davos, Switzerland.
: French actress Eva Green chosen as the
new James Bond girl.
: Jamaica to have Portia Simpson Miller as
Prime Minister, the first woman head of
the state.
: Oscar award announced : ‘Crush’ is the
best film, Philip Seymour Hoffman – best
actor, Reese Witherspoon – best actress
and Ang Lee – Best Director.
: Lakshmi Mittal’s 18.6 billion euro takeover bid for Arcelor is blocked by a change
in Luxemburg corporate law.
: Solar eclipse observe in Turkey.
: Kavya Vishwanathan’s novel ‘How Opal
Mehta Got kissed, Got wild and got a Life’
being recalled from store shelves, after
she admits copying passages fr om
another book.
: Britain replaces US as the publisher of
most new books in English.
: Earthquake measuring 6.2 rocks
Yogyakarta in Java killing about three
thousand as per first reports.
: J.K. Rowling voted the greatest living
British writer in a survey, followed by
Terry Pratchett, Ian Mcewan, Salman
Rushdie, Kazuo Ishiguro and Philip Pullman.
: World’s oldest tortoise Harriet dies at 176
years in Australia.
: Montenegro becomes the 192th member
of United Nations
: Qinghai – Tibet railway the world’s highest and longest highland railway becomes
operational.
: First world summit of religious leaders in
Moscow is attended by 200 representatives from 40 countries.
: Italy beats France 5-3 to win World Cup
Football.
: Kiran Desai wins the Booker Prize.
: Bhutan’s king Jigme Singye Wangchuk
abdicates the throne after a 34 year reign
in favour of his son crown prince Jigme
Khesar Namgyel Wangchuk.
: The former Iraqi President Saddam
Hussein is hanged to death in Baghdad
for the 1982 killing of 148 persons of Dujail
town, three years after being captured by
the US forces.

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15/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

WORLD HISTORY part 1

BC
c. 9000 : The development of agriculture.
c. 3500 : A number of small cities, centres of the
world’s first civilisation, appeared
in Sumer, the lower part of the TigrisEuphrates Valley (present Iraq).
c. 3500 : The Sumerians invented the first form of
writing. It was later simplified to produce
wedge-shaped cuneiform writing, which
spread throughout the Middle East.
c. 2500 : The Pyramids and Great Sphinx were built
in Giza, Egypt.
c. 2500 : The Indus Valley civilisation began to
flourish in the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa in what is now Pakistan.
c. 2500 : The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Epic of
Creation, the oldest epic poems in world
literature, were written in Mesopotamia.
c. 2500-1100: The Minoan civilisation on the island
of Crete rose and fell.
2300s : Sargon of Akkad conquered the Sumerians
and united all Mesopotamia under his rule,
creating the world’s first empire.
c. 1792-1750 : Babylonia flourished under King
Hammurabi.
c. 1700 : Code of Hammurabi, one of the first law
codes, was drawn up.
c.1500-1000:The Aryans of central Asia came to India.
c. 1400 : The making of iron began.
776 : The first recorded Olympic Games were
held in Greece.
c. 550 : Cyrus the Great established the Persian
Empire.
509 : The people of Rome revolted against their
Etruscan rulers and established a republic.
500 : The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were
built.
400 : Hippocrates, the father of Medicine
showed that diseases have natural
causes.
399 : Socrates was forced to commit suicide by
drinking hemlock, a poison.
44 : Julius Caesar of Rome was assassinated.
27 : Augustus became the first Roman emperor.
4 : Birth of Jesus Christ.
AD
1 : The Chinese invented paper.
250 : The Mayans developed an advanced civilization in Central America and Mexico.
313 : Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which
granted freedom of worship to Christians of
the Roman Empire.
395 : The Roman Empire split into the East Roman, or Byzantine Empire and the West
Roman Empire.
300 : The Ghana Empire, the first great black
empire in Western Africa, existed as a trading state.
570 : Birth of Prophet Muhammad, the founder
of Islam.
610 : Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, began
preaching.
622 : Muhammad, prophet of Islam, fled from
Mecca to Medina. His flight, called the
Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic
calendar.
750 : The Abbasids became the Caliphs of
the Islamic world.
800 : Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, ruler
of the Franks, emperor of the Romans.

988 : Vladimir I converted the Russians to
Christianity.
1054 : Rivalries between the church in Rome and
the church in Constantinople resulted in
their separation as the Roman Catholic
Church and Eastern Orthodox Churches,
respectively.
1110 : The Chinese invented the magnetic compass.
1279 : The Mongols gained control of all China.
1300s : The Renaissance began in Italy.
1400-1450s : The first book printed in Europe with
movable type appeared in the mid-1400s.
1453 : The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople (Istanbul) and overthrew the Byzantine Empire.
1492 : Columbus discovered America.
1498 : Vasco da Gama discovered sea route to
India.
1500s : The Reformation led to the birth of
Protestantism.
1519-1521: Ferdinand Magellan commanded the first
globe-circling voyage, completed in 1522
after his death.
1526 : Babar, a Muslim prince, invaded India and
founded the Mughal Empire.
1543 : Nicolas Copernicus proposed that the sun
was the centre of the universe.
1588 : The Royal Navy of England defeated the
Spanish Armada, establishing England as
a great naval power.
1776 : The 13 American colonies adopted the Declaration of Independence, establishing the
United States of America.
1789 : The French Revolution began.
1815 : Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated in the
Battle of Waterloo, ending his attempt to rule
Europe.
1858 : Great Britain took over the rule of India
from the East India Company after the Indian Revolt.
1869 : The Suez Canal opened.
1871 : Germany became united under the Prussian king, who ruled the new empire as
Kaiser Wilhelm I.
1901 : Trans-Siberian Railway opened. Marconi
sends first wireless message. Sweden
awards first Nobel Prizes.
1902 : First Siamese twins Barnam and Bailey circus twins separated. Thomas Alva Edison
invents a new electrical storage battery. London School of Economics and Political Science opened. ‘Cedric’, the world largest ship
(21,000 tons) built. First Trans-Atlantic telegraph message sent.
1903 : Marie Curie becomes the first woman to
win a Nobel Prize (Physics). Wilber and
Orville Wright fly their ‘Flyer’ at Kitty
Hawk, North Carolina.
1904 : Henry Royce produces first motor car, a
10hp 2-cylinder model.
1905 : Frenchman Alfred Binet invents intelligence tests. Albert Einstein says time and
speed are relative. Norwegian explorer
Roald Amundsen lands at Alaska and
finds magnetic pole.
1906 : “HMS Dreadnought”, world’s most powerful ship, built. SOS (Save our Souls)
adopted as international distress signal. First
submarine, UI, enters service.
1907 : Finland becomes the first to elect women
as MPs. Robert Baden Powell forms Boy
Scout Movement. Establishment of
Kuomintang by Sun Yat-sen. World’s first
working helicopter made.
1908 : Solid helium developed by Dutch scientists. Professor Albert Einstein presents

his ‘Quantum’ theory of light. Jack
Jackson (USA) is the first Negro to become world heavyweight champion.
1909 : London’s new direct 7,000 mile telegraphic
link with India opened. Colour films are
screened in public for the first time in
Brighton. North Pole conquered by US
Commander Robert E. Peary.
1910 : First pure sample of radium isolated by
Marie Curie. Death of Leo Tolstoy.
1911 : First wireless messages from the air. King
George V crowned “King of the United
Kingdom and Emperor of India”. World’s
first official airmail flight between Bamrauli
and Naini (India). Beginning of the the
Chinese Revolution that ended 1000
years of imperial rule. Sun Yat-sen becomes the first president of the Chinese
Republic. Second Nobel Prize awarded to
Marie Curie. Ronald Amundsen reaches
South Pole.
1912 : Titanic, world’s biggest ship sinks in
North Atlantic.
1913 : Grand Central Station, New York, world’s
largest railway station, opened. Neil Bohr’s quantum theory of the structure of
atoms published. Thomas Edison invents
a telephone recorder. Noguchi isolates the
virus of rabies.
1914 : Cancer treated with radium successful.
Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, the
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife
shot and killed in Sarajevo by a student,
Garvilo Princip. It served as a catalyst for
World War I.
1917 : Russian Revolution. Russia became a republic. Bolsheviks came to power in Russia.
1918 : US President Wilson enumerates his 14
points. Moscow is made the new capital
of Russia. Bolsheviks become the Russian
Communist Party. Tzar Nicholas II and his
family massacred.
1919 : Atoms ‘split’ by artificial means for the first
time by Professor Ernest Rutherford. First
nonstop flight across the Atlantic by
Alcock and Brown. Treaty of Versailles
signed. First World War ends. Germany declared a republic (Weimar).
1920 : League of Nations inaugurated. The International Court of Justice set up at Hague.
1921 : First BCG vaccine given in France.
1922 : Arms conference in Washington agrees
to outlaw the use of gas in warfare. BBC
formed. Free state of Ireland created.
1923 : Turkey declared a Republic.
1924 : Bacillus causing rabies isolated by the Pasteur Institute, Paris. Edwin Hubble discovers the unknown boundaries of the Milky
Way.
1925 : John Logie Baird perfects television.
1926 : Abdul Aziz ibn Saud proclaimed King of the
Hejaz who named his country Saudi Arabia.
1927 : The Jazz Singer, the first talkie, made. First
solo non-stop flight between New York
and Paris made by Charles Lindbergh.
1928 : Germ killing mould discovered by Alexander Fleming, London. Stalin’s First Five
Year Plan.
1929 : Wall Street crash, the biggest financial
crisis of the century.
1930 : Pluto, the 9th planet, discovered by
Claude Tombaugh. First modern computer designed by Vannevar Bush and his
team.
1931 : Thomas Alva Edison dies.
1932 : Chadvick discovers the neutron.
1933 : Adolf Hitler, Nazi leader, becomes Chancel-

lor of Germany.
1936 : Spanish Civil War begins. Germany’s
“People’s Car” – Volkswagen – launched.
1938 : Walt Disney’s first feature-length cartoon,
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.
1939 : Spanish Civil War comes to an end. Pact of
Steel between Italy and Germany. World
War II begins.
1941 : Birth of modern commercial television.
The Japanese attack Pearl Harbour,
bringing USA into World War II.
1944 : DNA discovered. Bretton Woods Conference.
1945 : Mussolini killed by Italian partisans Hitler commits suicide. 50 nations sign the
World Security Charger to establish UN.
UN Charter signed by 50 countries.
Postdam Conference. Little Boy, a Uranium-235 fission bomb, dropped over
Japanese city Hiroshima, explodes, 570
mts. above ground, instantly killing over
70,000. A 22-kiloton plutonium 239 bomb,
Fat Man, dropped over Nagasaki, explodes 510 mts above ground, killing
40,000 immediately. The International
Monetary Fund and the World Bank are
founded.
1946 : Paris Peace Conference.
1947 : IMF begins operations.
1948 : GATT enters into force. New state of Israel proclaimed.
1952 : King George VI of UK dies and Elizabeth
II becomes Queen. Artificial heart used
for the first time in USA. A non-violent
campaign against apartheid begins in
South Africa.
1953 : China’s five-year plan begins. Hammarskjöld
sworn in as UN Secretary- General. Mount
Everest conquered by Edmund Hillary and
Tensing Norway.
1956 : Non Alignment Movement founded.
1957 : Agatha Christie’s Mousetrap performs its
1,998th performance. Russia launches a
man-made satellite, Sputnik-1.
1958 : US enters space arena, launching Explorer-1.
1959 : Dalai Lama, fleeing from Tibet reaches India and finds sanctuary. Pictures of the dark
side of the moon sent back by Lunik III.
1960 : Sirimavo Bandaranaike sworn in as the
world’s first woman Prime Minister in Sri
Lanka. John F. Kennedy elected president
of USA– youngest man and first Roman
Catholic to be elected.
1961 : Inter-planetary space station launched by
USSR. Soviet Union’s Yuri Gagarin, becomes the first man to fly in space. Alan
Shephard Jr. becomes the first American
in Space. East Germans erect a five foot
wall (Berlin Wall). UN Secretary-General
Dag Hammarskjöld killed in an aircrash.
1962 : John Glenn becomes the first American
to orbit Earth in ‘Mercury’.
1963 : Valentina Tereshkova (USSR) becomes
first woman in space. Martin Luther
King’s immortal “I have a dream speech”.
US President John F.Kennedy assassinated.
1965 : Singapore recedes from Malaysia to become an independent state.
1966 : Luna 9 of USSR makes the first soft lunar
landing.
1967 : Apollo I cabin bursts at the Kennedy
Space Centre launch pad killing three.
1968 : Martin Luther King assassinated.
1969 : Arafat head of PLO. Anglo-French supersonic airline Concorde introduced. Neil
Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin become the
first men to set foot on the moon.
1970 : Kingdom of Cambodia becomes the
Khmer Republic.

1971 : Vietnam War comes to an end (57,000Americans lost their lives). MujiburRehman declares Bangladesh independent. Marines-9 orbits Mars (first spacecraft to do so).1973 : Agreement ending Vietnam War signed.1974 : U.S President Nixon resigns following theWatergateScandal. Gerald Ford takes over.1975 : Japan’s Junko Tabei becomes first womento scale Everest. Army coup in Bangladesh. Mujibur Rehman killed.1977 : Coup in Pakistan; Bhutto deposed; Gen.Zia-ul-Haq takes over.1978 : Louise Brown, the first test tube baby, bornin UK.1979 : Z.A. Bhutto executed. Margaret Thatcherbecomes first woman Prime Ministerof Britain. SALT II agreement signed by JimmyCarter and the Soviet leaders.1981 : The reusable Space Shuttle Columbialaunched. TGV, world’s fastest train, makes
its inaugural run from Paris to Lyons.
1982 : Russia’s Venus-13 lands on Venus.
1984 : Dorjei conquers the Everest without oxygen.
1985 : The Rainbow Warrior, flagship of ecological
group Greenpeace, sinks after explosion in
Auckland.
1986 : US Space Shuttle Challenger explodes after takeoff, killing seven astronaut. Soviet
Union’s Mir Space Station launched.
Nuclear leak in Chernobyl power station.
Ann Bancroft becomes first woman to
reach North Pole.
1988 : Pakistan President General Zia-ul-Haq
killed in an air crash. India quells invasion of Maldives by sea-borne group.
George Bush elected President of USA.
1989 : Ranasinghe Premadasa becomes President of Sri Lanka. Students in Beijing demonstrate for democratic rights. Chinese
troops storm Tienanmen Square and
crush the pro-democracy campaign. Ayatollah Khomeini dies. Demolition of Berlin Wall. Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia.
1990 : New Zealander, Richard Hadlee, becomes
the first cricketer to take 400 test wickets.
Nelson Mandela freed after 27 years in
prison. Iraq invades Kuwait. UN imposes
embargo on Iraq. Unification of Germany.
Formal end of Cold War.
1991 : Gulf War. Warsaw Pact disbanded. Kuwait fully liberated. Khaleeda Zia appointed first woman Prime Minister of
Bangladesh. Formal end to the Soviet
Union. Commonwealth of Independent
states formed.
1992 : Earth Summit in Rio.
1993 : Bill Clinton new US President. Netherlands
becomes the first country to sanction
mercy killings. Allan Border betters
Gavaskar’s record (10,122 runs). Sri Lankan
President Ranasinghe Premadasa assassinated. USA’s Strategic Defense Initiative
(SDI) stopped. Maastricht Treaty on European Union comes into effect.
1994 : End of Apartheid in South Africa. The
comet Shoemaker Levy 9 smashes into Jupiter.
1995 : WTO comes into effect. Austria, Finland
and Sweden become new members of EU.
Kobe earthquake in Japan kills 4,700
people.

DNA code of living organisms deciphered.
1996 : Gary Kasparov wins chess series against
IBM computer Deep Blue. Arafat becomes President of Palestinian Authority.
1997 : British scientists clone a sheep (Polly). Hale
Bopp comet comes closest to earth (200)
m.km). Labour Party wins polls in Britain;
Tony Blair becomes Prime Minister. Chemical weapons convention takes effect. Britain hands back Hong Kong to China. Mars
Pathfinder sends pictures of Mars. Diana,
Princess of Wales killed in a car accident.

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12/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

Glossary or Extra information part 1

Adaptation—Any feature of the organism or its parts, which is of definite significance in
allowing that organism to exist under the conditions of its habitat, is called adaptation.
Animal Ecology—It is the interpretation of animal behaviour under natural conditions.
Applied Ecology—The wild life management, range management, forest conservation,
biological control, animal husbandry, pollution control are the various aspects dealt
with in the applied ecology.
Avian Ecology—Ecology of birds. .
Biogeochemical Cycles—More or less circular pathways, through which the mineral
elements, including all the essential elements of the protoplasm, circulate in the
biosphere from environment to organisms and back to the environment.
Biological Clock—It is the rhythmic occurrence of processes taking place within the
organisms.
Community Ecology—Study of distribution of animals in various habitats.
Community Ecology—Study of living components of a community, major concerns of
community ecology are (a) nature of interdependence between individuals of different
species (b) causes of diversity in a community (c) reasons of a community located in
a particular habitat and (d) change and interaction among different communities.
Cytoecology—Cytological details in a species in relation to population in different
environmental conditions.
Ecad—An ecad is a population of individuals, which although belong to the same genetic
stock, but differ markedly in external characters such as size, shape and colour etc.
Ecological Niche and Ecological Equivalent—Ecological niche of an organism is the
physical space occupied by it, its functional role in the community i.e. tropic position,
its position in environment and the conditions of existence. Organisms that occupy the
same or similar ecological niches in different geographical regions are known as
Ecological Equivalents.
Ecosystem Ecology—Relation and interaction of both plant and animal communities with
their total environment.
Ecotype—Population of individuals of a species, which are genetically different.
Environment—The sum of all factors affecting the organisms is termed as the environmental
complex.
Environmental Biology or Ecology—Living organisms are inseparably related with their
physical and biological surroundings. This interrelationship of organisms with their
physical and biotic environments is studied under a separate discipline of science,
which is known as environmental biology or ecology.
Factor—A factor is an external force, substance or condition that affects organisms In any
way.
Fauna—Fauna is a collective term used for all the animals in a given region or geological
period.
Flora—Collective term for all the plants big and small found in a given region or geological
period.
Geographic Ecology or Eco-geography—Study of geographical distribution of organisms.
Habitat—The place where an organism lives, eats and reproduces is known as its habitat.
The habit of an organism actually represents a particular set of environmental conditions
suitable. for its successful growth.
Insect Ecology—It is the ecology of insects.
Limnology—It is the study of freshwater bodies like ponds, lakes and their organisms.
Mammalian Ecology—Ecology of mammals.
Oceanography—Study of marine habitat and organisms.
Palaeo-ecology—Organisms and their environment in geological past.
Pedology—Study of fossils, in particular their acidity alkalinity, humus content, mineral
contents, soil types etc., and their influence on the plant and animal life.
Population and Community—A population represents a group of individual organisms of
the same species in a given area. A community is a group of populations of different
species in a given area.
Population Ecology—It includes the study of population, its growth, competition, means
of dispersal etc.
Production Ecology and Ecological Energetic—These branches of ecology deal with the
mechanisms and quantity of energy conversion and energy flow through different
tropic levels in food chain and rate of increase in organic weight of the organisms in
space and time. The productivity is measured both in gross and net values. The total
organic production is called the gross production, and the actual gain, i.e. the gross
production minus the loss in respiration is termed as the net production, It includes
the proper management of different ecosystems so that the maximum yield can be
obtained. e.g. agriculture and horticulture.
Radiation Ecology—The gross effect of radiation and radioactive substances over the
environment and living organisms.
Space Ecology—It is the modern subdivision of ecology. It is concerned with the development
of those ecosystems, which support life of man during space flights or during extended
exploration of extraterrestrial environment.
Species—A uniform interbreeding population spread over time and space.
Terrestrial Ecology—It is the study. of biomes and the organisms distributed therein. It
can further be differentiated into (i) forest ecology, (ii) cropland ecology and (iii)
grassland ecology.
Vegetation—Collection and continuous growth of plants in space is called vegetation. Thus
vegetation is the totality of plant growth including large or small populations of each
species intermixed in a region.
Biotic—environmental factors that are nonliving components of ecosystems.
Abundance—The total number of organisms in a biological community.
Acid precipitation—The deposition of wet acidic solutions or dry acidic particles from the
air and includes acid fog, snow, etc.
Aerosols—Small particles or droplets suspended in a gas.
Agricultural revolution—The discovery of techniques for domesticating animals and
cultivating crop plants some 10,000 years ago.
Alpine—The high, treeless bio-geographic zone of mountains that consists of slopes above
the timberline.
Aquifers—Porous, water-bearing layers of sand, gravel and rock below the earth’s surface;
reservoirs for groundwater.
Autotrophy—An organism that synthesizes food molecules from inorganic molecules by
using an external energy source, such as light energy.
Bioaccumulation—The selective absorption and concentration of molecules by cells.
Biocide—A broad-spectrum poison that kills a wide range of organisms.
Biodegradable plastics—Plastics that can be decomposed by microorganisms.
Bio-geographical area—An entire self-contained natural ecosystem and its associated
land, water, air and wildlife resources.
Biological community—The populations of plants, animals and microorganisms living
and interacting in a certain area at a given time.
Biological pests—Organisms that reduce the availability, quality or value of resources
useful to humans.
Bio-magnification—Increase in concentration of certain stable chemicals (e.g., heavy metals
or fat-soluble pesticides) in successively higher tropic levels of a food chain or web.
Biomass fuel—Organic material produced by plants, animals or microorganisms that can
be burned directly as a heat source or converted into gaseous or liquid fuel.
Biosphere reserves—Our world heritage sites identified by the lUCN as worthy for national
park or wildlife refuge status because of high biological diversity or unique ecological
features.
Biotic potential—The maximum reproductive rate of organisms, given unlimited resources
and ideal environmental conditions.
Birth control—Any method used to reduce births, including celibacy,. delayed marriage,
contraception; methods that prevent implantation of fertilized zygotes and induced
abortions.
Blue revolution—New techniques of fish farming that may contribute as much to human
nutrition as miracle cereal grains but also may create social and environmental
problems.
Carcinogens—Substances that cause cancer.
Carnivores—Organisms that mainly prey upon animals.
Carrying capacity—The maximum number of individuals of any species that can be
supported by a particular ecosystem on a long-term basis.
Chloroplasts—Chlorophyll-containing organelles in eukaryotic organisms; sites of
photosynthesis.
Composting—The biological degradation of organic material under aerobic (oxygen-rich)
conditions to produce compost, a nutrient-rich soil amendment and conditioner.
Conifers—Needle-bearing trees that produce seeds in cones.
Consumer—An organism that obtains energy and nutrients by feeding on other organisms
or their remains.
Deciduous—Trees and shrubs that shed their leaves at the end of the growing season.
Decomposers—Fungi and bacteria that break complex organic material I into smaller
molecules.
Desalinization—Removal of salt from water by distillation, freezing or, ultra filtration.
Desertification—Denuding and degrading a once-fertile land, initiating a desert-producing
cycle that feeds on itself and causes long-term changes in soil, climate and biota of an
area.
Diversity—The number of species present in a community (species richness), as well as the
relative abundance of each species.
Ecosystem—A specific biological community and its physical environment interacting in an
exchange of matter and energy.
Endangered species—A species considered to be in imminent danger of extinction.
Endemism—A state in which species are restricted to a single region.
Energy—The capacity to do work (i.e., to change the physical state of motion of an object).
Energy pyramid—A representation of the loss of useful energy at each step in a food
chain.
Environment—The circumstances or conditions that surround all organisms or group of
organisms as well as the complex of social or cultural conditions that affect an individual
or community.
Environmental ethics—A search for moral values and ethical principle in human relations
with the natural world.
Environmentalism—Active participation in attempts to solve environmental pollution and
resource problems.
Environmental resistance—All the limiting factors that tend to reduce population growth
rates and set the maximum allowable population size or carrying capacity of an
ecosystem.
Environmental resources—Anything an organism needs that can be taken from the
environment.
Environmental science—The systematic, scientific study of our environment as well as
our role in it.
Estuary—A bay or drowned valley where a river empties into the sea Fresh water mingling
with salt water brings in sediment and nutrient and creates a gradient of salinity that
makes estuaries among the most diverse and biologically productive ecosystems on
earth.
Eutrophication—An increase in biological productivity and ecosystem succession caused
by human activities.
Exhaustible resources—Generally considered the earth’s geologic endowment: minerals,
non-mineral resources, fossil fuels and other materials present in fixed amounts in the
environment.
Exponential growth—Growth at a constant rate of increases per unit of time; can be
expressed as a constant fraction or exponent.
Extinction—The irrevocable elimination of species; can be a normal process of the natural
world as species out-compete or kill off others or as environmental conditions change.
Family planning—Controlling reproduction; planning the timing of birth and having as
many babies as are wanted and can be supported.
Fauna—All of the animals present in a given region.
Floodplains—Low lands along riverbanks, lakes and coastlines subjected to periodic
inundation.
Flora—All of the plants present in a given region.
Food chain—A linked feeding series; in an ecosystem, the sequence of organisms through
which energy and materials are transferred, in the form of food, from one tropic level
to another.
Food web—A complex, interlocking series of individual food chains in an ecosystem.
Gene banks—Storage for seed varieties for future breeding experiments.
Geometric growth—Growth that follows a geometric pattern of increase, such as 2, 4,
8,16, etc.
Grasslands—Biological communities of grasses, seasonal herbaceous flowering plants and
open savannas.
Green revolution—Dramatically increased agricultural production brought about by
“miracle” strains of grain.
Habitat—The place or set of environmental conditions in which a particular organism lives.
Hazardous—Describes chemicals that are dangerous, including flammables, explosives,
irritants, sanitizers, acids and caustics; may be relatively harmless in diluted
concentrations.
Health—A state of physical and emotional well being the absence of disease or ailment..
Herbicide—A chemical that kills plants.
Herbivore—An organism that eats only plants.
Heterotopy—An organism that is incapable of synthesizing its own food and, therefore,
must feed upon organic compounds produced by other organisms.
Human resources—Human wisdom, experience, skill, labour and enterprise.
Industrial revolution—Advances in science and technology that have given us power to
understand and change our world.
Insecticide—A chemical that kills insects.
Jet streams—Powerful winds or currents of air that circulate in shifting flows; similar to
oceanic currents in extent and effect on climate.
Keystone species—A species that determines the essential characteristics of a community.
Land rehabilitation—A utilitarian program to repair damage and make land useful to
humans.
Landfills—Land disposal sites for solid waste; operators compact refuse and cover it with
a layer of dirt to minimize rodent and insect infestation, wind-blown debris and leaching
by rain.
Marine—Living in or pertaining to the sea.
Matter—Something that occupies space and has mass.
Metabolism—All the energy and matter exchanges that occur within a living cell or organism;
collectively, the life processes.
Mineral—A naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid with definite chemical
composition and characteristic physical properties.
Mitigation—Repairing or rehabilitating a damaged ecosystem or compensating for damage
by providing a substitute or replacement area.
Mutation—A change, either spontaneous or by external factors, in the genetic material of
a cell; mutations in the gametes (sex cells) can be inherited by future generations of
organisms.
Natality—The production of new Individuals by birth, hatching, germination, or cloning.
Natural resources—Goods and services supplied by the environment.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)—A term referring collectively to pressure and
research groups, advisory agencies, political parties, professional societies and other
groups concerned about environmental quality, resource use, and many other issues.
Non-renewable resources—Materials or services from the environment that are not
replaced or replenished by natural processes at a rate comparable to our use of the
resource; a resource depleted or exhausted by use.
Omnivore—An organism that eats both plants and animals.
Organic compounds—Complex molecules organized around skeletons, of carbon atoms
arranged in rings or chains; includes bio molecules, molecules synthesized by living
organisms.
Ozone—A highly reactive molecule containing three oxygen atoms; a dangerous pollutant
in ambient air. In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms an ultraviolet absorbing
shield that protects us from mutagenic radiation.
Pasture—Enclosed domestic meadows or managed grazing lands.
Pathogen—An organism that produces disease in a host organism, disease being an alteration
of one or more. metabolic functions in response to the presence of the organism.
Pest—Any organism that reduces the availability, quality or value of a useful resource.
Pesticide—Any chemical that kills; controls, drives away or modifies the behaviour of a
pest.
Photochemical oxidants—Products of secondary atmospheric reactions.
Photosynthesis—The biochemical process by which green plants and some bacteria capture
light energy and use it to produce chemical bonds. Carbon dioxide and water are
consumed while oxygen and simple sugars are produced.
Pioneer species—In primary succession on a terrestrial site, the plants, lichens and microbes
that first colonize the site.
Plankton—Primarily microscopic organisms that occupy the upper water layers in both
freshwater and marine ecosystems.
Pollution—To make foul, unclean, dirty; any physical, chemical or biological change that
adversely affects the health, survival, or activities If living organisms or that alters
the environment in undesirable ways.
Population—A group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area.
Population explosion—Growth of a population at exponential rates to a size that exceeds
environmental carrying capacity; usually followed by population crash.
Primary succession—An ecological succession that begins in an area where no biotic
community previously existed.
Producer—An organism that synthesizes food molecules from inorganic compounds by
using an external energy source; most producers are photosynthetic.
Radioactive—An unstable isotope that decays spontaneously and releases subatomic
particles or units .of energy.
Rehabilitate land—A utilitarian program to make an area useful to humans.
Renewable resource- Resources normally replaced or replenished by natural processes;
resources not depleted by moderate use; examples include solar energy, biological
resources such as forests and fisheries, biological organisms and some biogeochemical
cycles.
Resilience—The ability of a community or ecosystem to recover from disturbances.
Salinity—Amount of dissolved salts (especially sodium chloride) in a given volume of water.
Stalinization—A process in which mineral salts accumulate in the soil, killing plants;
occurs when soils in dry climates are irrigated profusely.
Secondary succession—Succession on a site where an existing community has been
disrupted.
Sheet erosion—Peeling off thin layers of soil from the land surface; accomplished primarily
by wind and water.
Slums—Legal but inadequate multifamily rooming houses; some are custom built for rent
to poor people, others are converted from some other use.
Smog—The term used to describe the combination of smoke and fog in the stagnant air of
London; now often applied to photochemical pollution products or urban air pollution
of any kind.
Species diversity—The number and relative abundance of species present in a community.
Sustainable development—An improvement in human well-being that allows us to meet
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
Tectonic plates—Huge blocks of the earth’s crust that slide around slowly, pulling apart
to open new ocean basins or crashing ponderously into each other to create new, larger
landmasses.
Terracing—Shaping the land to create level shelves of earth to hold water and soil; requires
extensive hand labour or expensive machinery but it enables farmers to farm very
steep hillsides.
Threatened species—While still abundant in parts of its territorial range, this species has
declined significantly in total numbers and may be on the verge of extinction in certain
regions or localities. .
Mountains—the highest-altitude edge of forest that marks the beginning of the treeless
alpine tundra.
Topsoil—The first true layer of soil; layer in which organic material is mixed with mineral
particles; thickness ranges from a meter or more under virgin prairie to zero in some
deserts.
Transitional zone—A zone in which populations from two or more adjacent communities
meet and overlap.
Tropic level—An organism’s feeding status in an ecosystem.
Urban area—An area in which a majority of the people are not directly dependent on
natural resource-based occupations.
Urbanization—An increasing concentration of the population in cities and a transformation
of land use to an urban pattern of organization.
Vulnerable species—Naturally rare organisms or species whose numbers have been so
reduced by human activities that they are susceptible to actions that could push them
into threatened or endangered status.
Water logging—Water saturation of soil that fills all air spaces and causes plant roots to
die from lack of oxygen; a result of over-irrigation. Weather- Description of the physical
conditions of the atmosphere (moisture, temperature, pressure, and wind).
Wetlands—Ecosystems of several types in which rooted vegetation is surrounded by standing
water during part of the year.
Wildlife—Plants, animals and microbes that live independently of humans; plants, animals
and microbes that are not domesticated.
Woodland—A forest where tree crowns cover less than 20 percent of the ground; also called
open canopy.
Zero population growth (ZPG)—The numbers of births at which people are just replacing
them; also called the replacement level of fertility

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12/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

11 environmental science Modern and Effective Teacher part 1

Introduction
“We are, however, convinced that the most important factor in the contemplated
educational reconstruction is the teacher-his personal qualities, his educational qualifications,
his professional training and the place that he occupies in the school as well as in the
community. The reputation of a school! And its influence on the life of the community
invariably depends on the kind of teachers working in it.
—Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)
Since ancient times, the teacher’s role in the teaching-learning process has been pivotal,
because the teacher is that person who influences the personality of the child at a large
extent. So, he himself should have some desirable qualities of physical, moral and executive.
The importance of the teacher has enhanced even after that, the role and importance of the
teacher has not declined because for the concerned subject that he teaches. So, up to a great
extent, the success or failure of commerce education depends on the Environment teacher.
—Kothari Education Commission (1964-66)
Stated-Of all the different tractors which influence the quality of education and its
contribution to national development, the quality, competence and characters of teachers
are undoubtedly the most significant, nothing recruits to the teaching profession, providing
them with the best possible preparation and creating satisfactory conditions of work in
which they can be fully effective. In view of the rapid expansion of educational facilities
expected during the next three plans, and specially in view of the urgent need to raise
standards to the highest level and to keep them continually improving, these problems have
now acquired unprecedented importance and urgency. The efficiency of the teaching profession
and its contribution to national development in general and educational importance in
particular will depend largely on its social status and morale. This will, in its turn, depend
upon two Inter-related factors: economic status and civic rights of teachers, and their
professional competence, characters and sense of dedication.”
1. Sir John Adam
“In case the teacher wants to be a man-maker then it is essential that he should possess
specific qualities of character, intellect, and personality.”
2. Dr. Radha Krishnan
“The teacher’s place in society is of vital importance. He acts as the pivot for the
transmission of intellectual traditions and technical skill, from generation to generation he
helps to keep the lamp of civilization burning.”
3. Binning and Binning
“Teaching is a progressive occupation and the teacher must ever be a student.”
4. Henry Adams
“A parent gives life, but a parent gives no more. A murderer takes life and his deeds
stop there. A teacher affects eternity, he can never tell where his influence stops.”
5. Prof. Humanyun Kabir
“Teachers are literally the arbiters of a nation’s destiny.” The above mentioned definitions
show that a teacher of commerce or other subject cannot do justice to his teaching profession
unless he is also efficient and experienced in inculcating the interest of subject in the
students.
QUALITIES OF A ENVIRONMENT TEACHER
A.S. Barr (1958), mentioned the following characteristics of successful teacher (as
quoted by N.R. Saxena):
1. Good cultural background.
2. Substantial knowledge of the subject taught.
3. Substantial knowledge of professional practices and techniques.
4. Substantial knowledge of human development and learning.
5. Skill in the use of language-spoken and written.
6. Skill in human relationships.
7. Skill in research and educational problem solving.
8. Effective work habits.
9. Interest in professional growth.
10. Interest in school and community.
11. Interest in professional cooperation.
12. Interest in teaching.
13. Interest in the subject.
14. Interest in the pupils.
In America, Dr. F.L. Clapp (1913) suggested 10 qualities for being a good teacher such
1. Address
2. Personal Appearance
3. Optimism
4. Reserve
5. Enthusiasm
6. Fairness of mind
7. Sincerity
8. Sympathy
9. Vitality
10. Scholarship
Bagle and Keith (U.S.A.) suggested 3 more traits along with above mentioned ten
traits of a good teacher.
1. Tact
2. Capacity for leadership
3. Good Voice
The 15th Annual Gallup Pool of the Public Attitude towards the Public Schools in the
U.S.A. in 1983 mentioned the following qualities of a teacher (as quoted by M.H. Siddiqui):
1. Ability to communicate, to be firm and fair
2. Patience
3. Ability to discipline-to be firm and fair
4. High Moral character
5. Friendliness
6. Good Personality
7. Sense of Humor
8. Dedicated to teaching profession
9. Enthusiasm
10. Ability to inspire and motivate students
11. Intelligence and
12. Caring about students.
In New York, Education Department mentioned the following traits of a teacher:
T—Thoughtful
G—Gregarious
R—Reliability
O—Open mindedness
A—Abilities in Leadership
O—Originality
I—Integrity
D—Discernment
T—Tidiness/Tact
A—Ability to do creditable college work
E—Enthusiasm
A—Adaptability
C—Cooperativeness
H—Health
E—Effectiveness
R—Resourcefulness
S—Sense of Humor
O—Objectivity
F—Fluency
From above mentioned traits of teacher, we can show the significance of each letter of
the word ‘Environment teacher’ in the following way:
C—Champion of Commerce subject
O—Orator
M—Manner, Mastery over the subject
M—Marks-man in child psychology
E—Expositor
R—Recitative
C—Conscience
E—Euphony in Language use
T—Tact, thoughtful
E—Effectiveness
A—Alertness
C—Co-operativeness with students
H—Health (Physical and Mental)
E—Enthusiasm
R—Reliability, Resourcefulness
CLASSIFICATION OF AN EFFECTIVE ENVIRONMENT TEACHER
The quality and effectiveness is very necessary for a subject teacher. The effectiveness
is defined in different manners by so many educationists. In my option the quality and
effectiveness of subject teachers is also effected by their background and providing of teaching
aids as well as the environment of teaching and learning situation. But after all we should
not forget that there are some common skills for teaching and it is required for any subject
1. Individual Qualities
2. Interest in Commerce
3. Patience and Self Confidence
4. Good Health
5. Resourcefulness
6. Pleasing Personality of Teacher
7. Humorous Temperament
8. Professional Qualities
9. Educational Qualification
10. Knowledge of Subject
11. Knowledge of Psychology
12. Ability of Self-Expression
13. Knowledge of different Teaching Methods
14. Studious and Scientific Attitude
15. Knowledge of different Teaching Aids
16. Interest in the Research Work
17. Social Qualities
18. Quality of leadership
19. Democratic Attitude
20. Justice Loving
21. Faith in the World Citizenship
22. Honesty and Impartiality
23. Friendly and Sympathetic
24. Individual Qualities
1. Interest in Commerce
A Environment teacher must have zeal and zest in his teaching subject commerce and
should have full mastery over subject matter. Otherwise he would feel that he has been
assigned a very boring job.
2. Patience and Self-Confidence
As we know that commerce is not an easy subject, so a Environment teacher should
have full confidence and patience while teaching Book-keeping, Income Tax or Accountancy
etc. These both traits of Environment teacher help him to a large extent in solving the
problems of students effectively.
3. Good Health
As a proverb says ‘A healthy mind lives in a healthy body.’ It suits up to a great extent
with Environment teacher can teach efficiently with long hours. Here Good health denotes
both mental and physical health.teacher what ever their background. Some important are given below:
4. Resourcefulness
‘Teacher of Commerce’ should be creative and imaginative in arranging the different
available teaching means according to needs of the class. If there is no availability of any
teaching mean in the school, he can borrow the teaching means, such as Typewriter,
Duplicator, Xerox machine etc. from the community or the guardian of the students.
5. Pleasing Personality of Teacher
The Environment teacher should have a pleasing personality. Healthy physique, proper
clothes and impressive way of talking with others, are included in the pleasing personality.
6. Humorous Temperament
Jolly mood of the teacher keeps the students active and his humorous temperament
creates the suitable environment in the classroom.
Professional Qualities
1. Educational Qualifications
An Environment teacher must have some basic essential academic qualification for
teaching commerce to a particular class. Along with some basic academic qualifications, he
should have some professional qualifications for teaching purposes, i.e., B.Ed, or M.Ed. etc.
A teacher who wants to teach commerce at +2 level, should possess the B.Ed. Degree.
2. Knowledge of Subject
Environment teacher should have thorough knowledge of commerce and should have
good mastery so well that his students may get convinced of his teacher’s mastery over
subject easily. It is necessary for being a successful teacher.
3. Knowledge of Psychology
Environment teacher should have the knowledge of psychology because it helps the
teacher in understanding the child psychology, individual differences, stages of mental and
physical growth etc.
4. Ability of Self Expression
For being a good teacher, the teacher should have the ability of self-expression according
to the class standard and mental level of the students. He should express his views in lucid
language. He should not be too slow, nor unnecessarily high and shrill while teaching the
students. In between his teaching, he should take the help of blackboard to elucidate the
content/topic. The teacher should use following methods:
1. Laboratory method
2. Project method
3. Problem method
4. Analytic and Synthetic method
5. Socialized Recitation method
6. Discussion method
7. Supervised study method
8. Unit method
He should have mastery even the techniques usually used in teaching commerce:
1. Questioning Techniques
2. Assignment Techniques
3. Narration Techniques
4. Illustration Techniques
5. Examination Techniques
6. Drill techniques
7. Demonstration Techniques
6. Students and Scientific Attitude
Not one can become a good teacher unless he is studious and endeavors to acquire the
mastery over the subject. An Environment teacher should be studious and should devote his
sufficient time in increasing the subject knowledge. R.N. Tagore has rightly said, “A lamp
cannot light another lamp unless it continues its own flame burning.”
7. Knowledge of Different Teaching Aids
The teacher should have the full knowledge of different teaching aids. i.e., how to
operate them, and when to use them in the classroom for making of his teaching effective.
8. Interest in the Research Work
For being a good teacher of commerce, one must be good at research work. The
Environment teacher can use discovery methods, for the solution of different managerial
problems and high cost of the product problem.
Social Qualities
1. Quality of Leadership
Environment teacher’s leadership is totally based upon his personality and character.
A teacher having sound character and personality can motivate the student to do the task
in the group collectively. This quality of the teacher makes him active and famous in the
school.
2. Democratic Attitude
“Teacher can foster the qualities of ideal citizenship.” –Bining
The teacher should provide freedom, fairness, equality and brotherhood to the students
while dealing with them. This attitude denotes the democratic attitude of the teacher.
3. Justice Loving
The Environment teacher should have the quality of justice loving and should not be
biased while he is in the chair of judge. This quality of the teacher will convert him as an
ideal for the students.
4. Honesty and Impartiality
Environment teacher should behave all the pupils impartially. Teacher’s working and
his deeds both should be same. Those teachers, who have something in minds/hearts and
something else on their tongues, do not get any respect from others.
5. Friendly and Sympathetic
Environment teacher’s behaviour with his students should be like a friend. He should
try to trace the problems of the children and try to tackle with their problems effectively
as far as possible.
PROFESSIONAL GROWTH OF ENVIRONMENT TEACHER
As we know that education is dynamic process. It changes with advent of every new
research in the field of education. Commerce is a practical subject, which plays a significant
role in the development of commercial sector. So, now it is the duty of an Environment
teacher to avoid the old and outdated information’s for this very purpose. He must continue
to grow professionally, abreast of up to date scholarly contributions in the field of commerce.
R.N Tagore rightly remarked in this context “A lamp cannot light another lamp unless it
continues its own flame burning.”
An Environment teacher can avail of the following programs to grow professionally.
They are such as:
1. Professional Refresher Course
2. Professional Orientation Course
3. Extension Lecture
4. Professional Seminar
5. Professional Workshop
6. Professional Conference
7. Professional Writing
8. Professional Study Group
9. Professional Indirect Training
10. Professional Research
11. Membership and professional Councils.
1. Professional Refresher Course
Environment teacher should go to attend the refresher course on new techniques in
commerce teaching on order to be him up to date. Actually, refresher course if concerned
with in-service training and such type of courses are designed to revise and underline
existing skills and knowledge.
2. Professional Orientation Course
Such type of courses is organized in summer vacations by NCERT (Education department)
to make the professional knowledge of the teachers up to date. The main motto of organizing
such types of programmes is:
1. To make familiar with mental health of the students.
2. To make familiar with construction of objective type test, and evaluation techniques.
3. To reform the old system of education
4. To impart the latest educational researches in commerce.
3. Extension Lectures
It means that teaching or instructional work carried out by college, university or other
educational establishment for extending the normal range of a subject or allowing for the
pursuit of related interest. It helps the Environment teachers to keep themselves up to date.
4. Professional Seminars
Professional seminars refer to an occasion when a teacher or a group of expert people
meet to study and discuss something. It is also called small group discussion session. Such
type of seminars is organized to think and analyses the existing problems in the society. At
the end of seminar, some important decisions are usually made.
5. Professional Workshop
As we know that the area of commerce is very wide and related with several professions
and subjects. So only individual study is not enough for the Environment teacher. It is
compulsory to know that what is occurring in commerce related subjects. Upto a large
extent, it is like a seminar.
6. Professional Conference
The Environment teacher should attend the conferences over his subject, because several
teachers come from different places and gather at a particular place to discuss the emerging
practical problems. Eventually, this will broaden the knowledge of Environment teachers.
7. Professional Writing
Environment teacher should contribute his research findings through his papers in
journals of repute. This way, he can help the other Environment teachers to benefit from
his research findings.
8. Professional Study Group
In commerce education, several teachers of commerce subject may organize their own
group to discuss the emerging practical and theoretical problems of the commerce subject.
Generally, teacher’s training college lecturers or H.O.D. shoulders the responsibility of
organizing such type of groups.
9. Professional Indirect Training
Environment teachers can avail of these to grow professionally.
1. Studying the published magazines and journals by NCERT.
2. To listen Radio and to watch T.V.
3. To participate in commercial organization.
4. To visit the bank, market and business centers etc.
10. Professional Research
The keen research of commerce subject should be provided special facilities such as
computer typing, free postage facility, free entry to all university central libraries to consult
the journals, book and encyclopedia etc. This will add the merits to the professional growth
of Environment teachers.
11. Membership of Professional CouncilsThe Environment teacher should enjoy the membership of any professional council. Themain functions of these professional councils are:1. To organize the commercial fairs in the schools to demonstrate the commercialactivities before the students.2. To get the magazines or journals published timely with high standard. Teacher ofcommerce can know about his extent of success in teaching profession and styleswith the help of self-evaluation by teacher. For this very purpose, he may take thehelp of supervisor who evaluates the teacher through rating scales.Rating Scales To Evaluate the Performance of Environment teacherEvaluation RatingQualities of Excellent Better Good Ordinary PoorTeachers1. Personality Aspect(a) Physical(i) Outer Appearance(ii) Health(iii) Language(iv) Voice(b) Individual(i) Sympathy(ii) Objective(iii) Impartiality(iv) Tolerance(v) Self-control(vi) Social(vii) Liberal(viii) Regularity(ix) Dutiful(c) Practical(i) Self-confidence(ii) Resourceful(iii) Organizer(iv) Director2. Educational Aspect(a) Mastery over subjectENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE : MODERN AND EFFECTIVE TEACHER 299(b) Knowledge of the current affairs
(c) Knowledge of commercial geography
(d) Knowledge of teaching of commerce
(e) Practical knowledge and outlook of subject.
3. Professional Aspect
(a) Training
(b) Attitude towards teaching profession
(c) Knowledge of latest methods of teaching
(d) Scientific and broad outlook towards educational problems.
4. Teaching
(a) Planning
(b) Application of teaching methods
(c) Use of blackboard
(d) Questions
(e) Use of A.V. Aids
(f) Class discipline
Suggestions
The teacher is the guide of the society and nation; it is the statement of the Father Of
Nation Bapu (Mahatma Gandhijee). In the light of above statement we have to justify the
role of the teacher in the society in the development of the nation and it is true not from
today but from the Vedic periods. The society and nation has given so many examples for
us. The coming generation and new teacher should understand that their role as a teacher
is very important in the development of society and nation and it depends upon the economic
of nation and it will be guided by the Environment teachers of the nation. So they should
maintain a character and should present a role teacher in their subject because the teacher
is the model for their students.
QUESTIONS
1. How can an environment teacher keep pace with the latest development in education?
2. What are the essential qualities that a teacher of commerce should have in order to create
impact on children?
3. What qualities and qualifications should good environment teacher have? Discuss.
4. Teacher is the maker of man. In the light of this statement, discuss the essential qualities
of a environment teacher.
(a) Individual qualities (b) Professional qualities
(c) Social qualities (d) None of these.
Ans. (c
5. Who stated, “Teacher can foster the qualities of ideal citizenship?”
(a) John Adam (b) Kothari Education Commission
(c) Bining (d) Henry Adams
6. Which quality does not come under social qualities?
(a) Justice Loving (b) Interest in the research work
(c) Honesty and impartiality (d) Quality of leadership.
Ans. (b

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12/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

10 environmental science Modern Library part 1

INTRODUCTION
An important centre of resources for instructional purposes in Environmental Studies
is the modern school library. Modern instructional program emphasizes the training of
pupils to think and form judgments independently. This requires the provisions of a variety
of material of which school library is the central clearing-house. As an important service
agency it provides guidance to teachers in curriculum construction to pupils in the selection
of books and to adults in reading and in counseling. In a democratic society like ours, the
school library lays the foundation for free enquiry and intellectual development, so essential
for sharing public opinion.
The school library has expanded from a depository of books into a resource centre, used
extensively by all members of the school family. It reaches every classroom, touches every
pupil and teacher and even moves out into the community. It helps the teacher to enrich
the curriculum and facilitates personal and professional reading. It helps the student to gain
meaningful learning experiences. It provides for recreational and hobby interests to the
community. It is a storehouse of all types of teaching aids, including maps, charts, pictures,
models, manuscripts etc. It gives new depth to the learning experiences and the personal
lives of the pupils. Its place in a modern school cannot be filled by any other agency.
Functions of the School Library
1. Providing materials of instruction and reading
The school library renders valuable service to both the teacher and the pupil by providing
a wide variety of text and reference books, related to various school subjects. It provides a
lot of reading material to the pupil for answering questions, doing assignments and solving
problems.
2. Stimulating reading for enjoyment and recreation
The school library contains a number of books of general interest, both for the pupils
and the teachers. Interesting story-books, biographies, books on travels, adventures, inventions
280
CHAPTER
Environmental Science :
10 Modern Library
and discoveries etc. motivate pupils and stimulate reading for the sake of recreation and
enjoyment.
3. Teaching the techniques of searching references
School library teaches the techniques of searching references by a proper use of the
variety of material, contained therein. A definite procedure is followed in purchasing,
organizing, storing, issuing and receiving books, periodicals, pamphlets and other materials
in the library room.
4. Providing opportunities to pupils to assume responsibilities
The pupils are taught to keep books with care, to serve on library communities, to act as
library assist’s’ and other odd jobs connected with library service. They learn to work in cooperation with others, to help other pupils in the selection of books and to assist them in the
solution of some of their’ problems. It gives them an insight into human relationships; to
understand economic efficiency and to take action as responsible citizens, when need arises.
Essential Equipment for the Library
1. Shelves
In the library room shelves contain books of all types as well as albums of records,
films, filmstrips, school made slides and the like, arranged in a definite order, subject and
section wise.
2. Tables and Chairs
The tables in a library should be of proper height and size and the chairs, strong and
comfortable to accommodate students and teachers to read and work in the library. The
librarian should be provided with a separate chair and desk to discharge his duties effectively.
3. Filling Cabinets for Catalogue Cards
Cabinets and drawers of a standard size accommodate catalogue cards easily.
4. Racks for Newspapers and Magazines
Daily newspapers as well as journals and magazines in different languages, on all
subjects are placed in different racks, especially got prepared for this purpose. These racks
are placed in different corners of the library room or in the reading room, attached to the
library of that teachers and pupils come and read them in their vacant periods. Lock
magazine covers are essential for journals and magazines. They preserve the magazines and
journals from soil and theft. Rods in special frames may be used for the daily newspapers.
5. Bulletin Boards
Bulletin boards are used for displaying book-jackets and other illustrative material to
advertise new arrivals in the library for those who are not regular visitors. A portion of the
space, allocated to the library is used for the bulletin boards.
6. Storage Room and Work Room
The library storage room stores books that need binding and equipment essential for
the audiovisual material. A workroom or an adequate closet space with a big table is used
for mending books, mounting pictures and preparing books for the shelves.
Important Library Resources for Environmental Studies.
282 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
(A) Book Resources
These are essential for meeting individual needs in reading for presenting different
points of view and for providing rich background of understanding of the people, the processes
and the places, so essential in Environmental Studies instruction. Book resources include
the following:
1. Text-books
A number of good textbooks in history, geography, civics, economics and Environmental
Studies are available in the library. In view of the rapidly changing human life in all parts
of the world, new and revised editions of standard textbooks must be purchased for school
library for supplying most up-to-date knowledge to pupils and teachers.
2. Unit Booklets
In addition to textbooks, a number of unit booklets should also be available in the
Environmental Studies library. These booklets are on a variety of topics ranging from family
life and neighborhood to people of other land and places.
3. Reference Materials
These include reference books, encyclopedias, dictionaries, yearbooks, atlases, biographies,
bibliographies, directories and government bulletins etc.
4. Literary Materials
These include biographies, fiction, folklore, short stories, travel books, books of adventure
and hero-stories, romance, drama and poetry to provide reading for enjoyment and pleasure
to all concerned.
5. Source Books
These include diaries, minutes and proceedings of meetings, original accounts of travelers
and contemporary historians, manuscripts and timetable etc.
(B) Non-book Resources
1. Periodicals
These include current events periodicals and magazines about various aspects of life,
including art literature, music, dance etc. as these reflect social tends of the period.
2. Pamphlets
Pamphlets are usually written about one specific topic and generally illustrated with
pictures, photographs and drawings. The Environmental Studies teacher should keep himself
in touch with currently published pamphlets, connected with his subject. As most of the
pamphlets are published by various government agencies and bureaus for specialized services
these are low priced. They provide important information about different walks of social,
economic and political life.
3. Newspapers
A local newspaper is a must for every school library as it highlights local events,
happenings, issues, personalities and developments, correlated with the immediate social
and physical environments of the pupils. One or two daily newspapers of all-India circulation
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE : MODERN LIBRARY 283
are also desirable for the library. A good newspaper is a mirror of the world events. Its study
is essential for all teachers and students of Environmental Studies to keep themselves
informed of all that is happening around them in the national and international fields.
4. Special Documents and Publications
Almost all the state governments publish brochures, yearly calendars or data books or
activities within the states. Important business, concerns, railways and tourist bureaus also
publish folders, containing rich information about various places, regions and towns. These
provide primary source materials.
5. Audio-visual or Non-reading Materials
Non-reading materials play a very important role in Environmental Studies program.
Many of these materials present information difficult to obtain through reading. They add
realism and furnish the class with a common background of experience.
The Librarian as a Resource Person
1. A trained librarian maintains school library as an important resource centre to
provide planned, expert service and guidance to teachers and students. At least one
full-time librarian, with a permanent assistant should be provided to every secondary
SCDOOI. They should be given a separate workroom and adequate office space to
function effectively.
2. Creating creates an atmosphere of friendliness, self-control and self-direction. A
whole-time trained librarian helps the students in acquiring good study habits and
in developing a love of good books. He works with teachers in making the library,
an important resource centre and a living agency. He makes available the needed
resource materials to Environmental Studies classes.
Collateral Reading and the Library
Collateral and supplementary reading form an essential part of Environmental Studies
programmed. The students collect information about various facts and movements after
consulting many books and periodicals, besides their text-books for solving problems, doing
assignments and participating in discussion etc. Library resource can furnish a rich supply
of books, periodicals and pamphlets for; collateral reading. Textbook material must be
supplemented by additional reference reading. The students should be encouraged to read
widely on topics of their own interest, both for the sake of information and entertainment.
They should be guided how to select, read and make use of the knowledge thus obtained to
form good reading habits along with proper study procedures. They should be encouraged
to take notes and to keep a regular record of their readings.
Suggestions for Motivating Pupils to Utilize Library
1. Reading List
The teacher for each pupil should fix a minimum amount of supplementary reading in
the beginning of the year. Lists of different types of books, both fiction and non-fiction,
especially connected with Environmental Studies instruction, should be prepared by the
teacher in consultation with the librarian. These should be provided to all pupils and they
may be asked to read the required number of books, out of which not more than half may
be fiction.
2. Marks for Supplemental Reading
The teacher should set apart some marks in his subject for supplementary reading.
They may be added to the total number of marks, the child receives in Environmental
Studies at the end of the session. This will definitely motivate the pupils to read.
3. Questions in Tests
At least one question out of supplementary readers with adequate choice for different
categories of pupils, should be given in the question paper, and it must be attempted
compulsorily.
4. Programmed for Supplementary Reading
While teaching a certain unit about a particular period in Environmental Studies the
teacher should bring with him such books which contain interesting accounts of living
conditions in those days and read out a few paragraphs in the class from those books. He
should also give to his pupils the names of the books, the names of the authors and those
of their publishers and ask them to collect material there from, connected with the unit
under study. After a day or two he may ask a pupil who has gone through a certain book
and prepared reports and notes, to stand up and read out what he has collected, pertaining
to the lesson in hand.
Teacher’s Duty in Motivating Library Studies
The teacher should himself be a wide reader familiar with all the books published in
his field. He should see that all those books are available to students in the school library.
He should also be a regular reader of newspapers and periodicals. A good selection of
newspapers and magazines should be available in the school library. Pupils should be
encouraged to make use of this material. If the teacher has himself formed a habit of
reading a daily newspaper, at least one or two monthly magazines pertaining to his own
subject and making current affairs basis of the study of some important units in
Environmental Studies he can motivate the study of newspapers and magazines available
in the school library. He should keep a record of the reading of each pupil. A careful
checking of pupil’s reading may help him in evaluating books while preparing his lists of
library books for various grades, from year to year.
LIST OF BOOKS AND OTHER INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR HISTORY
LIBRARIES
A. Books on Teaching of Environmental History
Aggarwal, J.C., Teaching of Environmental History: A Practical Approach. New Delhi,
Vikas Publishing House. Pvt. Ud. 1992.
Beals, A.C.F., A Guide to the Teaching of Environmental History in Schools. London,
University of London Press,1937.
Binning, AC., and Binning, D.R, Teaching in Environmental Studies in Schools, New
York. OK Graw Hill Book Co., 1952
Bloch, Margate Historian’s Craft. Manchester University Press, 1959.
Brown, C.F., The Environmental History Room. London, Historical Association, Pamphlet
No. 86, 1948,
Chaudhary, K.P., Audio-Visual Aids in Teaching Indian Environmental History. Delhi,
Atma Ram & Sons, 1965.
Chaudhary, K.P., Contents of Environmental History in Indian Schools. New Delhi,
Ministry of Education, Government of India, 1953.
Chaudhary, K.P., The Effective Teaching of Environmental Environmental Studies in
India. A Handbook for Environmental Studies Teachers, New Delhi, NCERT, 1975.
Chaudhary, K.P., Preparation of Lesson Notes. Calcutta, Bookland, 1955.
Dale, E., Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching, New York, Dryden/Press 1954.
Dobbson, D.P., A Handbook for Environmental Studies Teachers. London, Methuen,
1929.
Dymond, D., A Handbook for Environmental Studies Teachers. London, McMilan, 1929.
Findlay, I.J., Environmental Studies and its Place’ in Education. London,University of
London Press, 1923.
Ghate, V.D., The Teaching of Environmental Studies, Delhi Oxford University Press,
1973.
Ghosh, K.D., Creative Teaching of Environmental Studies. Calcutta, Oxford University
Press, 1951.
Gustavson, Carlg, A Preface to Environmental Studies. New York, McGraw Hill, 1955.
Hill, C.P., Suggestions on the Teaching of Environmental Studies Towards World
Understanding. Paris, UNESCO, 1954.
Johnson, H. Teaching of Environmental Studies in Elementary and Secondary Schools.
New York, Macmillan, 1942.
Knowlton, D.C. Making Environmental Studies Graphic. New York, Scribner, 1925.
Kochhar, S.K., Teaching of Environmental Studies. New Delhi, Sterling Publishers Pvt.
Ltd, 1989.
Ministry of Education, Handbook of Suggestions for Teachers, London, H.M. Stationery
Office, 1950.
Ministry of Education, Teaching of Environmental Studies.” London, H.M. Stationery
Office, Pamphlet No. 23, 1950.
National Institute of Education, Improving Instruction in Environmental Studies. Vol.
II, New Delhi, 1969.
NCERT, Teaching Environmental Studies in Secondary Schools. A Handbook for
Environmental Studies Teachers. New Delhi, NCERT, 1970.
Pandey, B.N. and Khosla, D.N., Student Teaching and Evaluation. New Delhi, NCERT,
1974.
Srivastava, H.S. and Udin, Qamar, Sample Unit Tests in Environmental Studies. New
Delhi, NCERT, 1982.
Vajrwswari, R.A., Handbook for Environmental Studies Teachers. New Delhi, Allied
Publishers, 1973.
B. BOOKS ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India. London Sidgnick & Jack son, 1985.
Basham, A.L., The Indian Sub-continent in Historical Perspective. London School of
Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1954.
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Environmental Studies and Culture of Indian People. Vol. I,
Bombay, the Author.
Bose, M.L.A., Social and Cultural Environmental Studies of Ancient India. New Delhi,
Concept, 1980.
Burke, S.M., Akbar the Greatest Mughar. New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1989.
Carr, I.R,What is Environmental Studies? London, Macmillan & Company, 1961.
Chandri, Bipin, etc., Freedom Struggle. New Delhi, N.B.T., 1972.
Colling Wood, R.G., The Ideal of Environmental Studies. London, Oxford University
Press, 1961
Colling Wood, R.G., The Ideal of Environmental Studies. London,Oxford University
Press, 1951.
Desai, A.R., Social Background of Indian Nationlism. Bombay, Popular Prakashan..
Dutt, R.C., Environmental Studies of Ancient and Modern India. New Delhi, Arlbant,
1990.Edwardes, Michael Environmental Studies of India. New Delhi, Asia Publishing, House,
1961.
Goal. P.L., The Imperial Guptas. Varanasi Vidyalaya Prakashan, 1974.
Ghos, H.R., Outline Environmental Studies of the Indian People. Delhi, Publications
Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1961.
Guide to Environmental Literature
Sari, Parsed, Short Environmental Studies of Muslim Rule in India. Allahbad, The
Indian Press Ltd., 1965.
Jain, Krishan Lat, Hindu Raki in the World. Delhi, Akshat Pub. 1989.
Kosambi,. D.D., An Introduction to Indian Environmental Studies. Bombay, Popular,
1990.
Kumar, Nirmala, The Stream of Indian Culture. Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
I979.
Lal, B.B. and Gupta, (Eds.), Frontiers of the Indus Civilization, New Delhi” Books and
Books, 1989.
Law, D.A. (Eds.), Indian National Congress, New Delhi, Oxford University Press,1989.
Mahajan, Y.D., Ancient India. New Delhi, S. Chand & Co., 1989.
Majumdar, R.C. and Chopra, P.N., Main Currents of Indian Environmental Studies,
New Delhi, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1979.
Majumdar, R.C. (Ed.), The History and Culture of the Indian People, Bombay, Bharatiya
Vidya Bhavan, 1951.
Ministry of Information, India, Early History. New Delhi, Publications Division,
Government of India, 1988.
Fuller, H. and Trepan, R., Muir’s Historical Atlas—Medieval and Modem. London,
George Phillip and Sons Ltd., 1962.
Gilbert, Martin, Recent History Atlas 1870 to the Present Day. London, Weidenfold and
Nicholson, 1967.
Kina and Rio, Oxford Pictorial Atlas of Indian History. Madras, Oxford University
Press, 1973.
Patron, James. The American Heritage Pictorial Atlas of United States’ History. 1966.
Name of Producer Distributor
1. Producer: Almeryn Studio, Bombay, Distributor, Christian Association for Radio
and TV, Jablpur.
2. Producer, EBF, USA; Distributor Photo phone Pvt. Ltd.
3. Producer, EBSS, U.S.A.; Distributor. Photo phone Pvt. Ltd.
4. Producer, EBF, U.S.A.; Distributor, Photo phone pvt. Ltd.
5. Saki Vlhar Road, Bombay. Do Producer Common Ground, London: Distributor,
NEIE Sapporo, Bender, and Bombay.
6. Christopher Columbus.
7. Florence Nightingale.

12/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

9 Environmental Science Modern Methods part 4

Different Stages or Source Method
1. Primary Stage
According to Dr. Keatings original sources can be used for creating atmosphere in the
lower forms as such a use does not necessitate any great exposition. For example, reading
of Guru Gobind Singh’s Zafarnama will make the pupils realize the atmosphere lead to his
death. Reading of couplets of Bhakti movement will help them to realize the causes leading
to it.
2. Secondary Stage
Sources can be profitably used in the secondary stage to encourage pupils to collect,
examine and correlate the facts and to compare and rationalize different conflicting accounts
of characters. To begin with the exercise should be fairly simple.
Following points should be borne in mind to achieve satisfactory
1. The children themselves must read an original source carefully. The source book
is not available to all the pupils. Cyclostyled copies of the extracts should be pasted
on the blackboard to be copied by them.
2. Use of Library after the oral work by the teacher is over the pupils should go to
study the source books in the library
3. Now a separate time should be fixed when the teacher, along with his pupils, could
discuss the sources.
4. After the discussion is over, the teacher may give the assignment to the pupils. At
the initial stage it is better to give a little practice in giving well-considered answers.
The pupils should be asked to write their own impressions and inferences.
Use of Sources at Various Stages of the Lesson
1. At the pre-lesson stage sources can be used to motivate the pupils for a particular
lesson. For example, while dealing with the Ranaissance Movements in India and
highlighting its causes the teacher may quote Raja Ram Mohan Ray and Keshab
Chandra Sen. To prepare the pupils for the study of Bhakti Movement he may
recite a number of couplets of Bhakti saints.
2. Sources can be used for developing the lesson. For example, the teacher may quote
the following extracts from the accounts of Hieun Tsang while teaching about the
people of India during Harsha’s period.
3. Although they are naturally light-minded, yet they are upright and honorable.
They are not deceitful in their conduct and are faithful in their oaths and promises.
In their rules of government, there is remarkable rectitude.
4. Such extracts may create more appeal they may impart reality and vividness to the
lesson and reinforce the impact of teaching. As curiosity of the pupils is whetted
they are eager to learn more and more.
5. Sources can be used when the teacher finishes the lesson he may give to the
students interesting and useful extracts from the original or secondary sources.
The students may be asked to write answers to some questions on this basis.
Sources are particularly useful for the gifted students who can be encouraged to
pursue their interest in a particular topic make critical thinking, analysis and
prepare, an account of study.
Advantages of the Source Method
1.Creating a sense of vividness and reality
Use of sources in the teaching of Environmental Science gives a touch of realism to the
subject.
2. Satisfying the Curiosity of Children about the Question
Sources give the children an insight into the methods by which Environmental Science
have been built up. The sense of curiosity so important for a student of Environmental
Science can be particularly developed through this method.
3. Creating a Right Type of Atmosphere
The sources vitalize the subject and create a congenial and motivating atmosphere for
its study.
4. Mental Exercises
These include right thinking, and imagination, comparing and analyzing, drawing
inferences, self-expression and discussion.
5. Illustration and Supplementation
The original sources can be used to illustrate more important points in support of an
oral lesson or to supplement the one-sided picture of historical, political, economic and social
accounts.
6. Initiation in Research
The method initiates the pupils in research, which can later prove useful.
7. Use at all Stages
Though most suitable .for the pupils of higher classes this method can be used by the
pupils of primary classes also with advantage.
8. Meaning
The study of Environmental Science through source method makes’ the subject more
concrete and meaningful.
Limitation of Source Method
1. It is not a possible way for the teacher of schools to have easy access to the original
sources.
2. Use of sources is not easy for the teachers who are not trained in their use.
3. Source method is too complex and technical. Its use is difficult at the junior stage
and at the senior stage also its frequent use is doubtful.
4. As the sources are available in many languages and scripts covering a period of
more than three thousand years, the teachers cannot be conversant with sources
in different scripts. This makes their use difficult.
5. There is also the difficulty of sifting the suitable evidences from a multiplicity of
sources for their use.
Suggestions
In the case of use of source method in Environmental Science, “The road traveled is
more important than the destination reached.” Use of the method for selected topics may
make the study of Environmental Science more real and interesting. The use of sources
should be well planned and purposeful, well directed and geared to the need of the subject
and to the specific skills and understandings it seeks to develop. Finally, there is no single
method of teaching Environmental Science under all topics’ and all situations. There are
many and varied methods, which may be used depending upon the ingenuity of the teacher,
available resources and receptivity of the pupils.
5. SOCIALIZED RECITATION
Socialized Recitation is an ideal classroom procedure, aiming at Eliminating of the
traditional formal and lifeless classroom atmosphere. Generally speaking, the wider the
participation of the pupils, the greater and quicker the learning on the part of the pupils.
Socialized Recitation meets this demand. It promotes better relationship among pupils and
between teacher and pupils along with a sense of freedom and spontaneity. Under this
method pupils achieve better, results with less strain upon their energy.
Objectives of socialized recitation
According to Harold Benjamin the following are the main objectives of Socialized
Recitation :
1. To develop techniques useful in-group work.
2. To stimulate reflective thinking.
3. To supplement previous knowledge.
4. To encourage creative expression.
5. To practice the techniques of co-operative thinking.
1. The chief evil was the old-time recitation of emphasis on teacher activity, to the
neglect of pupil activity. The subject matter occupied the most important place in
teaching. The main function of the teacher was the drilling of the facts into the
minds of the pupils. As no worthwhile attitudes or skills were developed the pupils
felt indifferent lifeless and dull under such a procedure. It was almost impossible
to motivate study under these conditions. Pupils regarded their lesson as a tedious
and tiresome task.
2. Many proposals were made against this passivity and listlessness in the classroom.
Shaken from the teacher emphasis was placed on the pupils who become the centre
of educational process. The old system of teaching was replaced by a new procedure
of socialized recitation, which brought about more pupil activity a liberation of
school control and a new era in the classroom, which made the pupil and his
activities more prominent than the teacher or the subject matter. The traditional
class was transformed into a socialized one not dominated by a few individuals but
belonging to all members of the class. In fact, Socialized Recitation is “Group
consciousness and the feeling of individual responsibility towards the group.” Group
discussions became very common. Various devices and aids of teaching supplemented
textbook. The pupil’s personality developed in a natural way under such conditions.
Incentive was provided for exercising initiative, originality and independent thinking.
Group thinking was developed. The classroom becomes a unit of dynamic group life
in an atmosphere of freedom and spontaneity.
3. Committee Meeting. Varying from a simple informal organization to a complex
parliamentary one informal Socialized Recitation may assume any form. It may be
a sort of committee meeting in which the members decide on an agenda freely
express their ideas willingly share their information and arrive at some definite
conclusions about a certain issue or problem.
4. It may be a form of socialized group discussion in which members of the group elect
their own chairman to guide the discussion.
5. It may have a president, a secretary and to the reflected officials to carry on the
discussion in a parliamentary procedure. However, no procedure can be used exactly
the same for all teachers as both teachers and classes have different characteristics.
A wise teacher should evaluate these forms and use them in building up a technique
of his own.
General Plan of socialized procedure. In a general plan of socialized procedure used
with success in many schools the lesson or topic is divided into four or five parts and the
classes also divided into four or five groups. Each group of students is assigned one part of
the lesson under its chosen student leader. Each group plans its own work and executes it
according to its own plan. The teacher approves planning though he does not dictate. Questions
are asked, comments are offered and discussions are held freely and frankly in groups. The
members of the group may discuss any point that is not clear to them. After the group has
completed the discussion, the leader offers additional information that he thinks essential.
Members of the groups place there, observations and conclusions before the whole class.
Then the teacher offers his own remarks if he feels that certain points have not been
touched upon by the pupils or if define conclusions have not been reached. The leadership
should be changed from lesson to lesson to provide equal opportunities to all pupils. This
creates confidence in even intellectually backward students.
Role of the teacher in Socialized Recitation
The success of socialized recitation depends upon the role of the teacher. He sets the
stage, gives the promptings as and when necessary and then sums up the conclusions or
generalizations, arrived at. Socialized Recitation succeeds due to the careful planning and
judicious guidance of the teacher who no longer dominates the scene but acts simply a
member of the group. He retains control of the class as a guide, a leader, an adviser and
a helper rather than a traditional master.
Limitation of Socialized Recitation
1. Proper attitudes skills and ideals. As important classroom procedures Socialized
Recitation develops proper attitudes, skills and ideals. As the aims of education-are
constantly changing today attitudes and ideals are emphasized more than mere
knowledge in Environmental Science in _which the development of right attitudes
is the major aim of teaching.
2. Socialization of the child. Socialized Recitation trains pupils for participation in a
social environment, which implies freedom in conversation, readiness to mix in
friendly groups and ability to work with others for a common cause. Under the
stimulus of group consciousness, the child develops a spirit of initiative, organization,
co-operation, courtesy and goodwill.
3. Training in leadership. Socialized recitation method imparts training in initiative
and leadership. In ordinary classroom procedure, training in these traits of character
is very much neglected. In Socialized Recitation, ample opportunities are provided
for pupil leadership and pupil planning. Each individual is given a chance to express
what he feels and thinks.
4. Spirit of co-operation. Socialized Recitation is possible only when pupils are cooperative with one another as well as with their teacher. This develops the spirit
of co-operation. In our present day complex society, the feeling of inter-dependence
and the spirit of willingness to sacrifice self for the group are needed more than
anything else. As Socialized Recitation contributes greatly to this ideal, it occupies’
an important place in our educational programmed.
5. Clear thinking. The pupil was not expected to think at all under the old system of
recitation. He was required to produce what was given in the textbook. In new
Socialized Recitation method only pupils are provided with opportunities to discuss
to criticize and to evaluate problem facing them. This creates clear thinking so
much needed today. In a newly born democracy sound judgment and constructive
criticism are not possible without clear thinking.
6. Self-expression. Socialized Recitation method provides ample opportunities to pupils
to express their thoughts in an atmosphere of freedom and spontaneity. If the
pupils are provided chances to express themselves” better understanding prevails
in the learning process. It develops the power of talking and expressing oneself.
7. Motivation. Socialized Recitation provides motivation. The pupil is engaged in a cooperative task with the list of the group. Each pupil begins to feel his responsibility.
In accomplishing the work at hand everyone tries to do his very best for the group.
This motivates learning essential in all teaching procedures. .
Delimitation of Socialized Recitation
1. Inadequate acquisition and mastery. The use of this method is not adequate for the
acquisition and mastery of subject matter. Much time is uselessly wasted in
Socialized Recitation procedure.
2. Wandering away from the subject. This method creates the tendency of the class to
wander away from the subject. By careful guidance the teacher must lead the class
to the point at issue through his tact and resourcefulness. He should be merely a
stage-setter and a passive spectator of the lesson.
3. Futile discussion. Socialized recitation may lead to futile discussion. Some students
argue things for the sake of argument. Others argue simply to prove their point,
though it has no direct connection with the lesson and topic in hand. Here the
teacher should be alert enough to prevent useless debates.
4. Domination by a few assertive pupils. Here while few pupils may dominate the
entire lesson such domination is not conducive to the values that should result
from the use of this method. It is the duty of the teacher to plan recitation in such
a way that a few students do not monopolize the lesson. The teacher must ensure
the socialization. Of all the pupils and not merely a few of them.
5. Exclusive use of socialized recitation. The exclusive use of this method at all times
is a dangerous move. There are times when it should not be used at all. Every
lesson should be more or less socialized in the sense that students are given chances
to actively participate in it. However, mere socialization cannot serve the purpose
in Environmental Science.
Suggestion to Make Socialized Recitation Effective
1. It should centre round a topic important from the pupil’s point of view and in which
pupils express interest.
2. The teacher should prepare how to handle possible conflicts and reduce tensions
and blocks in good human relations. The planning should be flexible enough to
permit adjustment as the socialized recitation proceeds.
3. A friendly atmosphere should prevail during the period of socialized recitation.
Each pupil should be made to feel that he has something significant to contribute
and that his ideas are valuable. The teacher should help pupils to understand that
one. May disagree without being unpleasant or destructive.
4. The teachers should have adequate control over the procedure. He should be able
to see that socialized recitation “keeps on the track” and the class moves from
discussion to decision’ and from decision to action. The degree of control to be
exercised by the teacher depends on maturity of the group, previous practice in
self-direction, interest and spirit of cooperation among pupils.
5. Socialized recitation should never be used to spread prejudice. Pupils should be
encouraged to substantiate their own personal opinions with accurate information
and typical thinking about the topic or issue. Each pupil should be given an
opportunity to clarify his point and to convince the groups of the wisdom of his own
insight to truth. Monopolized by a few students. The teacher must ensure the
socialization of all the pupils and not merely a few of them.
6. The exclusive use of this method at all times is a dangerous move. There are times
when it should not be used at all. Every lesson should be more or less socialized
in the sense that students are given chances to actively participate in it. However,
mere socialization cannot serve the purpose in Environmental Science.
6. SUPERVISED STUDY METHOD
Immediate surroundings and community afford many opportunities for supervision.
Concrete tangible, visible and describable data on cultural, industrial, political and geographic
facts and relationships prove invaluable for the teaching of Environmental Science.
Observation lends vitality to the subject matter of Environmental Science. Direct experiences
are more effective in the process of learning they are also retained for a longer period of
time. As rich, full-bodied purposeful experiences seen, handled, tasted, touched, felt and
smelled. They are the unabridged version of life itself. A trip to a monument, a fort, a
temple, an institution, provides its first-hand experiences, which are real. The children can
see them, ask questions about them and examine them. Such experiences are highly conducive
to learning.
Utilization of Supervised Study Method
Under the careful guidance of Environmental Science teacher’s supervision provides
the pupils ample opportunities for asking questions, gathering data and pooling information.
Visit to telephone exchanges, newspaper and telegraph offices clarify ideas about
communication. Study trips to airports and their transportation centre show how people and
goods are moved about. Production and consumption can be understood better when pupils
see the stores, the markets and factories of the community.
Techniques for Supervision Study
1. Field Trips
Field Trips are under taken for securing information, changing attitudes, awakening
interests, developing appreciation, promoting ideas and enjoying new experiences. Used to
initiate a unit Method of Teaching of study they may be a part of its core and they can give
it the final touch.
2. Community Surveys
Community surveys foster comprehensive understanding of community structure and
processes in their everyday operation, interaction and complexity. In stimulating depth of
insight into vital community problems and trends, which have been influenced by past
conditions, present developments and future prospects community surveys are very useful.
3. Community Service Projects
Community service Projects involve individual activity of an integrated, mental, physical,
emotional and spiritual nature. They are of genuine educational value to the pupil as well
as to the society.
There can be no difficulty in preparing a catalogue of the available resources for proper
and detailed study if the teacher is resourceful and the class is enthusiastic and clever. The
resources, which need to be observed by the pupils, vary from community to community.
There may be classified under various heads such as resources of geographical, historical,
cultural, economic and scientific interests.
Suggestion for Supervision Study
Supervision study is a most scientific and new teaching method adopted by the Indian
Education system. Under this method the subject teacher observed and supervised the
student to study. With the help of subject teacher students prepared their program and
completed their content.
This method cannot be successful with out the help of subject teacher but due to its
limitation it is not much successful in Indian education system.
Conclusion
Used with other methods and procedures such as supervised study Socialized Recitation
may be profitably used for review-work and for problem solving. The socialized recitation
procedure can use all the devices, projects, problems and activities available under other
methods.
It is not a solution to all classroom problems but only a procedure to be frequently used
by the teacher too much advantage. As teaching is not a mechanical process anyone method
can be recommended for all occasions. To summarise success in the use of Socialized Recitation
depends upon the class, the teacher and the aim of the lesson that teacher keeps before him.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe the various methods adopted for the teaching of environmental science in the
primary classes. Which is the best and why?
2. Describe the various methods. Which can be adopted for the teaching of environmental
science in the secondary classes? Which is the best and why?
3. Discuss the characteristics of the lecture method of teaching environmental science. Point
out its advantages and disadvantages.
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of supervised method of teaching environmental
science.
5. Socialized recitation method is one of the best methods of teaching environmental science.
Discuss.

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12/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

9 Environmental Science Modern Methods part 3

Advantages of Discussion
1. Useful both for the Juniors and Seniors
Junior children learn through conversation and discussion, to take turns, listen
attentively, act cooperatively, speak distinctly, stand and sit correctly, respect the ideas of
others, share interests, ask pertinent questions, utilize simple information and comprehend
the problem before the group. Senior children plan and discuss problems with the entire
group and in smaller units. The group learns together and presents important information,
makes suggestio
ns, shares responsibility, comprehends the topic, evaluates the findings and
summarizes results.
2. Clarification and Sharpening of the Issues
In discussion new ground is discovered both for agreement, disagreement, and old ideas
and new ones may replace values.
3. Increase in Knowledge
Through discussion children crystallize their thinking and identify concepts needing
further study. Therefore, their knowledge of Environmental Science becomes clear.
4. Moderation
Through discussion students know and understand that difference in perspective need
not result in disaster and that people may believe in the same thing for different reasons.
5. Knowledge of Limitations
The student discovers what he did not know, what he has overlooked and wherein he
was mistaken both as to facts and the method of interpreting them. He may find out what
he knows and the surety with which he knows it.
6. Intellectual Teamwork
Discussion represents a type of intellectual teamwork resting on the principle that the
pooled knowledge, ideas’ and feelings of several persons have greater merit than those of a
single individual.
7. Tolerance
Discussion engenders toleration for views, which are at variance from those one holds.
8. Discovering Leaders
Discussion helps the teacher in discovering students with a potential for becoming
genuine leader.
3. PROJECT METHOD
The most concrete of all types of activity methods Project method provides learning
experiences suited to individual differences. Now here is a question that what is a project?
We can explain in these words that project is an activity willingly undertaken by the pupils
for the solution of a felt problem and leading to learning as prescribed in the curriculum.
It is concrete activity directed towards the learning of a significant skill or process. Having
a wide connotation project includes any activity like dramatics, pageants, making models,
drawing maps and charts, collecting pictures, preparing scrap books, going on historical
tours and exhibitions, preparation of Environmental Science wall newspaper, organization
of debates, etc. The project method transcends the subject -barrier because it is possible to
learn some literature, mathematics, art, etc., also while undertaking a project of
Environmental Science.
Basic Principles of the Project Method
1. Activity: The project involves mental or motor activity.
2. Purpose: Project should be purposeful, a felt need of the pupils.
3. Experience: Project should provide varied type of experiences to the pupils such as
manipulative, concrete, mental, etc.
4. Reality: Project should provide real experiences.
5. Freedom: the pupils should be free to undertake the different activities connected
with the project.
6. Utility: the activities undertaken in a project should be useful.
Steps of Project Method
1. Providing a situation
First of all, the project provides a suitable situation where the pupils feel a spontaneous
craving for carrying out a useful activity through conversation, discussion or exhibition of
pictures and models etc. the teacher discovers the interests, needs, tastes and aptitudes of
the children. While telling a story or taking the pupils out on a field trip initiates the pupils
to the world of projects, they are exposed to so many situations and they determine the
selection of the project. Enough opportunities should be given to the children to express
their ideas and to have discussions among themselves, as well as with the teacher. The
situations or problems provided to the pupils should be social as these provide better social
training and greater satisfaction.
2. Choosing
One of the important duties of the teacher is to so guide the pupils that they may
choose a good project.
3. Purposing
Kilpatrick has well said that the part of the pupil and part of the teacher in the most
of the school work depends largely on who does the purposing. It is practically the whole
thing. Purposing is the most important thing about a project. The teacher might fall a prey
to the temptation of making the choice of the project himself due to desire to get quick and
good results. This violates the most important principle of the method. The pupils should
make the final selection of the project. By self-choice and self-imposition pupils work
wholeheartedly and energetically. Thorough execution and successful completion of the project
they are stimulated to better planning. The teacher’s guidance to pupil-effort should not
hinder the development of the pupils who must make the final choice of the project. The
purpose must be common and acceptable to the whole class. The project “must enlist the
whole-hearted enlistment of the student.”
4. Teachers Role
The teacher should see that the projects satisfy a real felt need of the children and also
have educative potentialities. He should check that the’ pupils may not make a wrong
choice. He should forestall ill feelings arising out of failure. He should lead the students
tactfully to give up that choice and to make another. He should expose the pros and cons
of the project and1et the students reconsider their decision if the choice is not good. He
should resist the temptation of imposing his own idea on the pupil. Pupils do not take
interest in an activity thrust upon them.
5. Freedom and Utility
The pupils should be free to undertake the different activities connected with the
project. The activities undertaken in a project should be useful. Execution of the project
requires a lot of pupil activity. It is the longest of all steps. A series of activities have to be
taken up by the pupils such as collecting information, visiting places and peoples, interviewing
important personalities, consulting labels, observing specimens and curios, preparing maps
charts, diagrams and graphs of the data collected by various groups, surveying the locality,
studying books, keeping records, calculating prices, inquiring rates, writing letters, and
‘Thank you’ notes. The teacher should guide the pupils about the sources of relevant
information. He should provide them with necessary information sought for. He should
supervise the activities and watch the progress of the project. He should co-ordinate the
knowledge to be imparted through a project. He should see how an activity such as the
production of a play or a concert involves elocution, music, literature, craft-work, needleworld and art, along with the many calculations required in planning expenditure, keeping
accounts and producing a balance sheet or the practical science involved in stage lighting
and effects. The teacher should see that pupils get a variety of experiences and learn a good
deal as they undertake the activities.
6. Evaluation
In evaluation or appraisal of the work done the pupils must find out their shortcomings
and good points and review their work to find out that nothing has been omitted and that
the work has been carried out in accordance with the plan laid down. He should see that
mistakes committed are noted to serve as eye-openers for the future: Useful experiences and
successes should be reviewed to serve as good examples. The pupils should critically appraise
their work.
7. Recording
As impressions left unrecorded are likely to be wiped away from memory, pupils should
maintain a complete record of all activities connected with the project. Everything should
put down in the project book such as the choice of the project, ‘the discussions held, proposals
advanced and accepted, duties assigned, books and journals consulted, information sought
for, work undertaken, difficulties felt and experiences gained, short and long-term gains
obtained, self-appraisal important guidelines and future references etc. Thus, project-book
embodies the valuable experiences of the group. Well-prepared project books may be awarded
prizes to encourage the-pupils.
Teacher’s Role in the Project
1. As the teacher has got mature experience, deeper and broader knowledge than the
pupils, his guidance and prompting is indispensable. As the pupils are out on a
venture they need suggestions arid guidance at every step.
2. The teacher should save the pupils from faltering and floundering. He should give
help whenever it is required.
3. As a good prompter, just behind the curtain, the teacher should not make his
appearance on the stage for the stage is meant for the pupils.
4. As a keen observer and a true sympathizer the teacher should win the goodwill of
the pupils so that the pupils feel encouraged.
5. As a storehouse of information and knowledge the teacher should be able to anticipate
the difficulties and suggest remedies as and when necessary. The pupils might look
to him for help, guidance, solace and affection. As no method, however, good, is
superior to teachers, the need for devoted teachers is established.
Some examples of projects:
1. Story of Transportation through the Ages.
2. Akbar and his Age.
3. Mohammad and Islam.
4. The Age of the Ramayana.
5. The Mughal Age.
6. The Indian Renaissance.
7. Communication through the Ages.
8. One World,
9. Our Country.
10. Our City.
11. Our Food
12. Nationalist Movement in India.
13. Achievement After Independence in India.
14. The Socialist Movement.
15. Stages of Evolution of Human Beings.
Advantages of Project Method
1. Psychological.
Project method is planned in accordance with the psychological laws of learning. It
provides the most natural conditions of learning. Therefore, the child remembers the principles
learnt for a longer time.
2. Freedoms and Self-direction
Project method has an element of freedom. It is a method of self-direction. In it the
child learns to improvise, to invent, to experiment, to know in all ways possible and to
translate the knowledge into action. Thus, it develops the creative mind.
3. According to Maturity
According to the psychological concepts of maturation the Project method provides
learning material that suits one’s particular stage of mental development. While the more
mature pupils are given abstract and difficult features of the task in hand the simple leaner
are left to the others who are slow learners.
4. Social Benefits
As separate groups take responsibility for making their own contributions, which are
subsequently pooled and become the class effort, project method results in social benefits.
5. Training
Project method provides training for social adjustment. It develops the pupil’s capacity
to adapt themselves to their environment, to make use of whatever is available and to meet
a situation resourcefully.
6. Doing after Knowing
In project method the pupils learn and do because they understand the value of what
they learn and do in the carrying out their purpose. .
7. Democratic
Project method trains children in a democratic way of life. It encourages them to cooperate, to think and act together of a common goal. Teaching students to be responsible,
it gives them freedom within the framework of cooperative democracy.
8. Practical
Project method provides learning through practical problems by encouraging pupils to
achieve a deeper insight into principles through actually seeing them in operation.
9. Growth
Both the student and the teacher grow through project method. Stimulated by and
encouraged in his exploration of many materials the student approaches other areas of
learning in a similar manner. The teacher also grows in his understanding of a child’s
creative development.
10. Evaluation
An intrinsic standard of evaluation is set up in project method. As the pupils learn to
evaluate their own work, this evaluation reveals the mistakes and helps in rapid progress
and true learning.
Limitations of Project Method
1. Less Knowledge
While children taught by the project method often show astonishing knowledge of
details in odd things but they reveal real ignorance outside the projects. For example, while
an Environmental Science project may deal with construction of an ancient house with great
thoroughness yet the pupils may have no knowledge of the administration of Chandra
Gupta Maurya.
2. Difficult to Formulate
At a later stage of education, it is not easy to formulate projects having a satisfactory
degree of width and comprehensiveness.
3. Lack of Progress in Instruction
There is much difficulty in ensuring any kind of systematic progress in instruction.
4. Requires High Qualification of teachers
Very highly qualified teachers are required for success in this method. Teachers should
be zealous and well prepared.
The spirit of the project method is, in the words of Raymont, “whole-hearted purpose
on the part of the pupil.” It gives a wonderful practical approach to the learning of both
theoretical and practical problems. The responsibility of the success or otherwise of project
method rests with the teacher.
4. SOURCE METHOD
According to source method, pupils build up historical, political, social and economic
accounts, with the help of available sources, documents, historical accounts, biographies and
inscriptions, coins, travel accounts, religious and secular literature, etc. Pupils learn to know
about particular events to understand the process through which they arrive at the product.
Use the source method does not aim at converting the school children into full-fledged
historians and social scientists.
Objectives of Source Method
1. To enable the pupils to develop critical thinking by using the Sources and weighing
the evidence. .
2. To enable the pupils to form their own independent judgment through a critical
analysis of sources.
3. To develop skills of collecting data, sifting the relevant data organizing them and
interpreting them.
4. To create proper atmosphere to make the people and events of bygone times more
real to students.
5. To stimulate the imagination of the students for reconstruction of the past.
6. To develop and promote proper interest and right perspective inthe study of
Environmental Science.

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12/05/2019 YamEen Uncategorized

9 Environmental Science Modern Methods part 2

2. LECTURER CUM DISCUSSION METHOD
Lecture method is a one of the best method but it cannot be used every time and it is
not suitable for each and every topic and also for subjects. It can use as a main method and
other teaching methods can be used with it. The discussion method is the supporting method
and it can be used with the lecture method. Some social scientist says that it is a one of the
most valuable methods of teaching Environmental Science is discussion and “two heads are
better than one”. Wonderful results are achieved when a number of heads combine to solve
a problem.
Advantages
1. This method is best for a problem, an issue or a situation in which there is a
difference of opinion. In the discussion method of teaching Environmental Science
there is exchange of opinion accompanied by a search for its factual basis.
2. Speech is free and responsible. And values are created not quarreled about. The
participants are engaged in a process of competitive cooperation. Agreement is the
declared purpose of discussion that is an ordered process of collective decisionmaking.
3. If agreement is not reached, discussion has the value of clarifying and sharpening
the nature of agreement.
Objectives of Discussion Method
As a method of teaching Environmental Science discussion may be used for the following
Objectives:
(i) To lay plans for new work;
(ii) To make decisions concerning future action;
(iii) To share information;
(iv) To obtain and gaining respect for various points of view;
(v) To clarify ideas,
(vi) To Inspire interest; and
(vii) To evaluate progress
Steps in Discussion
1. In the case of problems
(i) Locating and defining problems of common interest and significance;
(ii) Working together to find ways of solving the problems;
(iii) Allocating responsibilities for the solutions suggested; and
(iv) Evaluating the effectiveness of the suggested solutions and their implementations.
2. In case of plans for projects and programs
(i) Deciders on the programmed and the particulars such as date, time and place;
(ii) Enumerating the jobs to be done in organizing the programmed;
(iii) Allocating duties to the members of the group; and
(iv) Evaluating the results.
FORMS OF DISCUSSION
There are many types of discussion defined in the teaching of Environmental Science
but important methods are given below, which are mostly used in Indian schools:
1. Informal discussion.
2. Classroom discussion.
3. Debate.
4. Symposium.
5. Panel discussion.
6. Brain storming
1. Informal Discussion
When we discuss political matter in the tea stall or a group of students or people near
the road discuss about their problems or when we discuss our personal problems with our
friend with an objective that discussion is considered as informal discussion because that
discussion is only for talk and after discussion we are not finding any result. So such type
of discussion is under the Informal discussion category.
2. Classroom Discussion
Most of the time students discuss their problems with the teacher in the classroom and
that is for caused based problem or some time students discuss their problems related with
the teaching and such type of discussion is objective based and after discussion we try to
find out some result. This type of discussion comes in the category of Classroom discussion.
3. Debate
In the program of debate two or more students holding contradictory opinions present
arguments on a particular problem. They also rebut the opposite side. Finally the rest of the
class is encouraged to ask questions from the debaters or engage in a brief discussion with
them. A debate requires a moderator. The teacher should work both with the debaters and
the. Class in order to get significant results.
Some Topic for Debate
(i) Globalization is necessary for the economic development of India.
(ii) Capitalism is responsible for the poverty of our country.
(iii) Five Year Plans have failed to generate proper development.
(iv) Democracy is the best form of government.
(v) For forms of Government let fools contest that which is governed least is best.
(vi) Democracy in India is more formal than real.
(vii) Fundamental rights are of no use in India.
(viii) Used needs total disarmament.
4. Symposium
In a symposium the participants present to the audience through speeches or proper
reading their views about various aspects of a selected problem or topic. To quote Struck,
“We think of a symposium as a. group of comments, either, spoken or written; which portrays
contrasting or at least different points of view”.
Objective of Symposium
The objective of the symposium is to clarify thoughts upon controversial questions. The
audience listens to the discussion. Each person forms his own conclusions concerning the
validity of the points of view presented. The ideal number of pupil participants in a symposium
is four or five.
Some Suggested Topics for Symposium
1. Proper organization of the community project is necessary for rural economic
development.
2. Profit is the dominant motive in all-economic ventures.
3. Mahatma Gandhi and his thoughts.
4. The achievement of the Aryans in the fields of science, literature, government, art
and the life of an ordinary Indian.
5. Super leader in Indian History Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru.
6. Declaration of assets and liabilities of the Members of Parliament.
5. Panel Discussions
It is a discussion among selected group persons, large enough for variety and small
enough for purposeful deliberations. The ideal number may be four to six persons. The
participants in a panel discussion are usually eminent persons in their fields. They present
various points of view before an audience, which subsequently joins in the discussion.
Purpose of Panel Discussion
The purpose of panel discussion is to get important facts from different angles, to
stimulate thinking and lay a basis for wide participation. The members among them make
no speeches only informal conversations take place.
Rotation System
The rotation system may be followed in a panel discussion. Each member expresses his
opinion in turn or the members speak briefly as the thought comes to them one after the
other.
Advantages
Panel discussion method provides a natural setting in which people get the opportunity
to ask questions, to evaluate replies and to contribute constructively. Some topics for Panel
Discussions are:
1. The role of planning in economic development.
2. Nationalism can no longer solve the problems of under-developed countries.
3. Nowhere was the achievement of the Aryans greater than in social organization.
4. “The President represents the nation but does not rule the nation. He is the symbol
of the nation and his place in the administration is that of the ceremonial device
or the seal by which the nation’s decisions are made known” ____ B.R. Ambedkar.
5. An active king, whose, opinions were a matter of public concern, is unthinkable
within the framework of our (England’s) constitution” Laski Herold.
6. The role of planning in economic development.
7. Nowhere was the achievement of the Aryans greater than in social organization.
6. Brain Storming
In this form of discussion the brains of the participants are stimulated to create a storm
of ideas and give suggestions regarding the topic without any deliberation to find whether
or not they are meaningful and purposeful. When the brain is let go thus without social
institutions, it would be able to give expressions to some of the most useful and practical
suggestions. For example “Small saving could do a lot to strengthen the savings movement”
is a good subject for brainstorming.
Method of Discussion
1. To make proper use of the discussion method the teacher and student representatives
should do considerable planning. In planned and well-directed procedure discussion
the whole process may be divided into three stages-preparation, discussion and
evaluation.
2. For through preparation for the discussion the teacher should read wide and deep
purposefully and critically and prepare the material conscientiously. Arranged
logically points to be discussed should be written on the chalkboard for guidance.
If the students do not initially feel the need of the problem to be discussed they
should be made to do so.
3. The conducting the discussion should be disciplined. The arrangement of seats
should ensure face-to-face talk. The strength of the discussion is obtained from the
information and viewpoint of all members of the group. All should contribute to its
progress as it is a thinking-together process which breaks down if one member of
the group dominates it. Ensuring that every member of the group participates the
teacher should encourage sincere questions and comments. He must gear the
discussion to the realization of specific objectives and development of proper skills
and methods:
4. A relaxed and informal climate is essential to achieve desirable results. As the
discussion is truly a cooperative experience not a competitive quarrel. The teacher
must continually discourage attack upon persons and seek to bring the participants
to focus their comments on the proposition not the person. He should be ensured
that discussion is objective-oriented, the questions should be skilful and direction
sound. A happy rapport should be established between the teacher and the taught.
5. Discussion results in expanding information or lessening or removing prejudices,
changing attitudes or ideals, increasing the range of interest, altering ideas
concerning national and international policies, or causing a member to become a
more active citizen. One must evaluate the discussion with these motives in mind.

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