INTRODUCTION
Today most of us live in a socially and technologically evolved society where our exploitive
potential and knowledge of nature has increased academically. The problem is that our
contact with it has diminished morally. It may have diminished to such an extent as to be
dangerous to us and to the nature itself. Biodiversity is the vast array of all the species of
plants, animals, insects and the microorganisms inhabiting the earth either in the aquatic
or the terrestrial habitats. The human civilization depends directly or indirectly upon this
biodiversity for their very basic needs of survival–food, fodder, fuel, fertilizer, timber, liquor,
rubber, leather, medicines and several raw materials. This diversity’s the condition for the
long-term sustainability of the environment, continuity of life on earth and the maintenance
of its integrity.
Although our understanding of the earth’s organisms–its biological resources- is still
imperfect, there is no doubt that the abundance and diversity of living organisms provide
many benefits and make our world a beautiful and interesting place to live. Biodiversity is
generally described in terms of its 3 fundamental and hierarchically related levels of biological
organisms. These areGenetic diversity
It includes the genetic variations within species, both among geographically separated
populations and among individuals within single population.
Species diversity
It includes full range of species from micro organisms to giants and mammoth varieties
of plants and animals, e.g. single celled viruses and bacteria etc. and multi-cellular plants,
animals and fungi.
Ecosystems diversity
It studies variation in the biological communities in which species Jive, exist and
interact.
Because genes are parts of species, and the species make up ecosystems- the concept
of biodiversity reflects an interrelationship among its three components. Biodiversity is
distributed uniformly across the globe. It is substantially greater in some areas than in the
others. Generally, species diversity increases from the poles towards the tropics- for instance,
among the terrestrial systems, the tropical moist forests, which cover only 57% of the earth’s
land area, possess as much as over 50% of the world’s species.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is diminished or destroyed in a number of ways either by natural changes
or by human disruption. The loss of even a single species is considered as a tragedy as each
form of life is a natural storehouse of irreplaceable substances the genetic materials (Ehrlich
& Ehrlich, 1982). As species become extinct, the fine balance of nature is disturbed to great
extent. The loss of even a single species can alter a food chain/food web, i.e. ecosystem
disruption, and upset the delicate balance between one species that preys upon another.
Natural Causes
Species arise through processes of mutation, isolation, and natural selection. Evolution
can proceed gradually over millions of years or may occur in large jumps when new organisms
migrate into an area or when environmental conditions change rapidly. In a sense, species
that are replaced by their descendants are not completely lost. The much larger modern
horse, for instance, has replaced the tiny Hypohippus, but most of its genes probably still
survive in its distant offspring.
Human-Caused Extinction
Man has a long history of dependence on biological resource hence depletion of resources
is obvious. It has never been the pursuit of mankind to completely destroy other species, but
in a variety of ways through ignorance or carelessness, we have reduced biological abundance
and driven species into extinction. Man as a hunter in Stone Age may have been responsible
for the extermination of the “Mega fauna” of both America and Eurasia during the Pleistocene
era. Climatic change may have been partially or primarily responsible. Vast usage of bones
in Europe and Siberia provide enough evidence that our ancestors have hunted upon animals
mercilessly. The loss of species and ecosystems extracts a high price. The water, the air,
fertile soils and productive seas as a common resource are all products of healthy biological
systems. The scale of human impact on the global biodiversity is huge. It is considered that
man has disturbed his own life support system. Tropical forest areas or the world suffer a
great loss, which are disappearing at the rate of 17 million hectares (17 sq. kms.) every year
(UNEP report, 1992).
The estimation from the fossil record suggests that the average life of a species is about
4 million years. According to an estimate, if there are about 10 million species a year at a
moderate estimate, we are now likely to lose around 50,000 species a year over the next
decades. According to the IUCN Red Data Book, the following is a broad list of threatened
animals:
Table 4.1: List of Threatened Animals
Animal group No. of species
Mammals 507
Birds 1,029
Reptiles 169
Amphibians 57
Fish 713
Insects 1,083
Molluscs 409
Corals and sponges 154
Annelid worms 139
Crustaceans 126
In a large number of southern countries the seeds of biodiversity destructions were laid
during the colonial era. In India, for instance, large-scale commercial forestry started in
British colonial times speeded up the rate of forest exploitation for fodder, meat, milk and
coffee demand. Deforestation and biodiversity destruction to sustain life after independence
by our more recent ancestors added fuel to the fire. Our mental capabilities do not allow us
to accept the growing changing demand of time. We still experience a lot of dependence on
forest products especially for fuel wood. However, government has provided substitutes of
solar driven appliances for cooking and lighting. Still it has failed to decrease pressure on
wood resources.
Table 4.2. Direct and Indirect Impact of Humans on Biological Resources
Direct impact Indirect impact
Hunting and food Gathering Habitat destruction
Fishing Exotic species Introductions
Trade in Animal Products Diseases
Harvesting wild plants Pollution
Pet and scientific trade Genetic assimilation
Predator and pest control
1. Measuring Biodiversity
Diversity can be defined as the number of species found in a community. Hence,
biodiversity refers to the species richness of an area. Algorithms of biodiversity have been
developed to connote species diversity at different geographical scales as follows:
Alpha Diversity
It indicates the number of species in a single community. The index can be used to
compare the number of species in different ecosystem type.
Beta Diversity
It indicates the degree to which species composition changes along an environmental
gradient.
Gamma Diversity
It indicates the rate at which additional species are encountered as geographical
replacements within a habitat type in different localities.
2. Rio-geographic Classification of India
India has been classified into ten bio geographic zones by the Wildlife Institute of India
under the Government’s Bio-geographic Project Table 3.
Table 4.3: Bio-geographic Zones of India
S.No. Bio-geographic Zones Distribution
1. Trans- Himalaya Ladakh Mountains, Tibetan plateau.
2. Himalaya North-Western, Central, Western and Eastern
Himalayas
3. Desert Thar, Kachchh
4. Semi-arid Punjab plains
5. Arid Gujarat, Rajputana
6. Deccan Peninsula Central Highlands, Chhota Nagpur, Eastern Highlands,
Central Plateau, Deccan south
7. Gangetic Plain Upper and lower Gangetic plain
8. Coast West coast, East coast
9. North-East Brahmputra valley, North east hills
10. Island Andamans and Nicobar Group of Islands, Lakshwadeep
3. The Value of Biodiversity
Ecosystems and species provide an enormous range of goods and other services –
immediate as well as long term, material as well as spiritual and psychological – which are
vital to our well being. The values of the earth’s biological resources can broadly be classified
intoDirect Values
Consumptive and productive uses.
Food Resources: Grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, condiments, tea-coffee, tobacco, liquor,
oil from plant resources; and meat, fish, egg, milk (and milk products), honey, etc. from
animal resources.
Other Resources: Medicine, fuel, timber, household accessories, fodder, fiber, fertilizer,
wool, leather, paint, resin, wax, thatch. Ornamental plants, rubber, creams, silk, feathers,
decorative items, etc.
Indirect Values
Non-consumptive uses and options for the future.
1. Carbon fixing through photosynthesis, which provides the support system for species.
2. Pollination, gene flow, etc.
3. Maintaining water cycles, recharging ground water, protecting watersheds.
4. Buffering from climatic extreme conditions such as flood and drought;
5. Soil production and protection from erosion;
6. Maintaining essential nutrient cycles, e.g. carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen and others.
7. Absorbing and decomposing pollutants, organic wastes, pesticides, air and water
pollutants;
8. Regulating climate at both macro and micro levels;
9. Preserving recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific, educational, ethical and
historical values of natural environments.
(i) Consumptive Use. Man is mostly dependent on plant and animal resources for his’
dietary requirements. A major share of our food comes from domesticated crops
and animals. Still we derive major of food from wild species. A large section of
human population is dependent on food, which we gather from seas, and oceans
that is harvested from free roaming wild organisms. Seafood is rich in minerals and
vitamins and contains up to 60 percent of the protein. Unfortunately, deforestation,
hunting and clearing of forests, grazing and expansion of agricultural lands removes
potentially valuable food species and the wild ancestors of our domestic crops.
(ii) Productive Use. Trade and commerce industry is very largely dependent on forests.
Besides, timber, firewood, paper pulp, and other wood products, we get many valuable
commercial products from forests. Herbs of medicinal value. Rattan, cane, sisal,
rubber, pectins, resins, gums, tannins, vegetable oils, waxes, and essential oils are
among the products gathered in the wild form forest areas. Like Himalayan forests
serve as a storehouse of medicinal herbs, which are presently being used to cure
many diseases. Many wild species e.g. milkweeds, etc. are also being investigated
as a source of rubber, alkaloids, and other valuable organic chemicals.
(iii) Medicine. Many medicinal and aromatic plants are being exploited in the wild to
tap their potential for different ailment cure in the field of drug extraction e.g.
Hippophae rhamnoides, Ephedra Kerardiana. Dactylorrahiza hatageria etc. Besides,
they are being cultured in plantations and protected in wild to encourage in-situ
and ex-situ conservation viz. Valley of flowers, Rohtang in Kullu, Lahu & Spiti
Valley. Animal products are also sources of drugs, analgesics pharmaceuticals,
antibiotics, heart regulators, anticancer and ant parasite drugs, blood pressure
regulators, anticoagulants, enzymes, and hormones.
(iv) Ecological Benefits. Man cannot have control over nature in the wild. It can only
put “pressure on resources and pollute environment. Then what makes environment
act as a self-replenishing system with respect to resource generation and selfcleanliness. To answer this comes into picture the role of biological communities.
The processes of soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient
cycling, solar energy absorption, and management of biogeochemical and hydrological
are all beyond the scope of man’s control. Non-domestic plants, animals, and microbes
do this favor to mankind by maintaining ecological processes at no cost. These also
serve as a library of gene pool. Wild species of plants and animals exercise control
over disease-carrying organisms and in suppressing pests. Food chain explains how
nature keep a control over population of organisms wherein organisms of small size
and larger in number are consumed by organisms large in size and smaller in
number to next higher tropic level. Hence, preservation of natural areas and
conservation of wild species should be encouraged and practiced to restore the
biological wealth.
(v) Aesthetic Use Wild species of plants and animals have always appealed man’s .
psyche. Human society has evolved from his early habitat in the forests, which
abounds in flora and fauna. Till date his instinct to observe nature in the wild calls
him from socially and culturally an evolved society, as tourist from far and wide
places. Thousands of tourists visit national park, sanctuaries and forests throughout
the country and especially in mountainous areas. A glance of temperate grasslands
perhaps the most beautiful landscape pleases and comforts man. All domestic plants
have evolved from wild ancestors and food gathering is no longer a necessity for
man but still thousands enjoy hunting, fishing and other adventurous outdoor
activities that involve wild species. Such environment and playful exercise gives
man an opportunity to renew his pioneer skills, and be at mental ease after leading
a hectic day in today’s life. Man enjoys his surrounding by decorating it with
images of wild animals and plants.
(vi) Cultural Benefits. A particular species or community of organisms may have
emotional value for a group of people who feel that their identity is inextricably
linked to the natural components of the environment that shaped their culture.
This may be expressed as a religious value, or it may be a psychological need for
access to wildlife. In either case, we often place a high value on the preservation
of certain wild species.
(vii) Option Values. This refers to the use of various species for the benefit of mankind,
sometime in future. The hunt for various species under the scope of biotechnology.
is already underway for finding solutions to various environmental problems. The
environmental issues being addressed to be: pollution as a major problem, ways to
fight various disease viz., cancer, diabetes etc., AIDS and others.
4. Biodiversity at Global, National and Local levels
1.Global Initiatives for Biodiversity Assessment
The initiative for biodiversity assessment was taken long back in 1991 with the UNEP
Biodiversity Country Studies Project (consisting of bilateral and Global Environmental Facility
funded studies in developing countries) implemented in cooperation with donor countries
and UNDP. The preparation of it dates back to 1987. Nineteen studies have been completed
and several more are in the process of completion. The approach from gene to ecosystem was
initiated as a Research Agenda for Biodiversity, IUBS/SCOPE/ UNESCO, Paris (Sol brig,
1991). The agreed text of the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted by 101
governments in Nairobi in May 1992, signed by 159 governments and the European Union
at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio
de Janeiro in June 1992. At present 174 governments is party to this convention. Apart from
this Global Biodiversity Strategy (1992), Global biodiversity; Status of the Earth’s Living
Resources (1992), Caring for the Earth; A Strategy for Sustainable Living (1991), Global
Marine Biological Diversity: A Strategy for Building Conservation into Decision Making
(1993), Norway/UNEP Expert Conference on Biodiversity (1993) and From Genes to
Ecosystems: A Research Agenda for Biodiversity (1991) are the milestones on the international
biodiversity initiatives. Many more nations are engaged in developing their own National
Biodiversity Strategies. Global Biodiversity Assessment (UNEP, 1995) estimates the total
number of animal and plant species to be between 13 and 14 million. It further records that
so far only 1.75 million species have been described and studied. Ecosystem diversity has
not been even reasonably explored as yet. Hence, there seems to be wide gap of knowledge
at global, regional and local levels.
Till recent past biodiversity conservation was thought to be limited to saving genes,
species and habitats but the implementation revolutionary policies and more awareness has
led to the emergence of a framework based upon saving biodiversity, studying and most
importantly using it sustainable. Reforms in the field of forestry, agriculture, technology,
international trade agreement and watershed management is required. Biodiversity is directly
or indirectly related to masses (researchers, government agencies, non-government agencies
and private sectors) ‘at all levels of development. Since we depend upon biodiversity our
various activities can be linked to its usage and conservation. Therefore, trade, economics,
population, land tenure, intellectual property rights and resource consumption & waste are
all related to biodiversity conservation. Hence, its sustainable use can be promoted through
information, ethics, knowledge and awareness.
2. Levels of Action
Need for biodiversity conservation is realized by all nations of the world because their
lies common interest of masses. Most of the resources do not belong to an individual, a
nation or a continent. They are simply global. Each and every member on the earth has
equal right over it. To limit the loss of biodiversity globally 4 major steps have been realized
important at national, regional and local levels.
(i) Global Environment Facility (GEF)
World bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) established the GEF in 1900 on a three-year
pilot basis. The GEF is expected to commit $ 400 million for the biodiversity
conservation issue.
(ii) International Biodiversity Strategy Programme (IBSP)
World Resources Institute (WRI), World Conservation Union (WCU), UNEP together
with more than 40 Governmental and non-Governmental organizations have
prepared the framework to drastically reduce the loss of biodiversity. This would
serve mankind on a more sustainable basis.
(iii) Convention on Biological Diversity (COBD)
Under the aegis of UNEP, more than 100 nations gathered during Earth Summit at
Brazil. This was accomplished to workout a legal framework for—
Governing international financial support for biodiversity conservation,
• The identification of international conservation priorities and
• Technology transfer for conservation and use of biodiversity.
(iv) Agenda 21
Developed through a series of inter-Governmental preparatory meetings with input from
a variety of non-Governmental processes including the Biodiversity Strategy Programme—
AGENDA 21 provides a plan of action on a number of issues including biodiversity.
INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION
Lying at the junction of Agro-tropical, Euro-Asian and the Indo-Malayan biogeography
realms, India is a country of vast biodiversity in the world and quite a significant one all
over the globe. In fact, it is among the twelve “Mega diversity” countries in the world. India
is also a “Vavilov” centre of high crop genetic diversity–so named after the Russian agro
botanist N.I. Vavilov who identified about eight such centres around the world in the 1950s.
India, a mega-biodiversity country, while following the path of development, has been
sensitive to the needs of conservation. India’s strategies for conservation and sustainable
utilization of biodiversity in the past aimed at providing special status and protection to
biodiversity rich areas by declaring them as national parks. Wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere
reserves, ecologically fragile and sensitive areas. It has helped in reducing pressure from
reserve forests by alternative measures of fuel wood and fodder need satisfaction. by a
forestation of degraded areas and wastelands, creation of ex-suit conservation facilities such
as gene banks and eco-development. The challenges before India are not only to sustain the
efforts of the past but also further add to these efforts by involving people in the mission.
BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT: INITIATIVES IN INDIA
In a most recent attempt to map biogeographically regions, Rodgers and Pan war (1988)
attempted to define the biogeographically regions of India. The sub-continent has ten
biogeographically zones viz., Trans-Himalayan, Himalayan, Indian desert, Semi-Arid, Western
Ghats, Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic Plains, North East India, Islands and Coasts and not yet
defined zones for aquatic (freshwater and marine) ecosystems have been mapped. The Wildlife
Institute of India has converted these regions on Survey of India digital database.
India is rich in endemic flora and fauna. According to an estimate (Anon., 1983) about
30 per cent plant species are endemic to India. Areas rich in endemism are North Eastern
India, the Western Ghats and the North Western Himalayas. A small pocket of -local
endemism is also reported from Eastern Ghats (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). The
Project on Study, Survey and Conservation of Elidangered Plants (POSSCEF) has estimated
that about 3000-4000 plant species are under different degrees of threat (Nayar & Shastri,
1987). Recently, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has launched
a project viz., National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) which envisages the
assessment and stock taking of biodiversity related information at various levels, including
distribution of endemic and endangered species and site-specific threats. Key features of
this project include emphasis on decentralized planning and use of interdisciplinary working
groups to involve all sectors concerned with biodiversity conservation.
Table 4.4: Wild Animal Diversity in India
S.No. Class World India % (Age) Endemism
1. Mammals 4,231 372 8
2. Birds 8; 400 1,175 4
3. Reptiles 5,375 399 33
4. Amphibian 2,000 181 62
5. Fishes 23,400 1,693 —
6. Insects 8,00,000 60,000 —
7. Molluscs 1,00,000 5,000 —
Source: Wildlife Institute of India WII, (1993).
Table 4.5: Wild Plants Diversity in India
S.No. Flora World India % of Endemism
1. Angiosperm 2,50,000 15,000 6
2. Gymnosperm — 64 —
3. Pteridophytes — 1,022 —
4. Bryophytes — 2,584 —
5. Algae — 2,500 —
6. Fungi -— 23,000 —
7. Bacteria — 850 —
8. Lichens — 1,600 —
Source: Biodiversity in India, R.R. Rao (NBRI) Lucknow, 1984.
HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
Areas with rich biodiversity and exhibiting high levels of endemism, which are under
immediate threat of species extinction and habitat destruction, are recognized on priority
basis worldwide for conservation practices and are known as hot spots. 12 hot spots identified
world over represent 14% of world’s plant species in only 0.2% of its -total land surface. 12
mega diversity nations (Mexico, Columbia, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Madagascar, Indonesia.
Malaysia. India, China and Australia) contain 60-70 % of the world’s biodiversity. Out of the
total hot spots worldwide two lies in India. These are represented by North-eastern Himalayas
(Khasi jaintia hills and the lower Himalayan slopes embracing areas of Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura) and Western Ghats region in the south. These
fall under heavy rainfall zones.
The rain forests of the Western Ghats and the eastern Himalayas consist of very dense
and lofty trees with a multitude of species occurring in the same area. Hundreds of species
of trees can be identified in a hectare of land besides mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids,
lianas and vines, herbs shrubs and fungi that make up this. region the most diverse habitat.
Giant trees stretch up towards the sun. Buttress roots, anchored within the soil, support the
smooth straight trunks, which rise 30 mts. or more before branching out. The spreading
crowns effectively block outmost of the light from the light from the ground beneath.
Dipterocarpus sp. predominates in these forests and this type of vegetation is often called
Dipterocarpus forests.
1. North-east Himalayas
From the dense evergreen and semi-evergreen vegetation of the foothills in the Eastern.
Himalaya, the character of vegetation changes at altitudes of 1525 m to 1830 m. Qaks,
magnolias, laurels and birches covered with moss and ferns replace the sal, silk-cotton trees
and giant bamboos of the foothills. At about 2745 m to 3660 m one enters the coniferous
forest of pine, fir yew and junipers. There is undergrowth of scrubby Rhododendrons and
dwarfs bamboos. Due to high humidity and much higher rainfall, lichens, mosses, orchids
and other epiphytes cover the tree trunks. The animal life in the temperate region is
different from the western Himalaya and is characterized by the presence of Indo Chinese
fauna. The red panda, hog badgers, ferret badgers, crestless porcupines are typical species
of this area. Three kinds of goat antelopes also occur in the eastern Himalaya and are
relatives of the European chamois. Goral is a smaller goat antelope found throughout the
tract on rugged grassy slopes and on rocky grounds near the conifers forests.
2. Western Ghats
The Western Ghats and the central belt lying to the west of it, is a region of very high
rainfall and is characterized by evergreen vegetation, its flora and fauna being a kin to the
evergreen rain forest of north-eastern India. Among the macaques the lion tailed (Macaca
silenus) is one of the world’s most endangered primates, surviving in the evergreen forests
of the Western Ghats of south India, its total population is estimated to be about 800 only.
In the langur group, the nilgiri ‘Iangur’ (Presbvtis johni) is a multihabitat species occurring
in addition to the shoals, in the temperate evergreen forests above 1700 m altitude in the
Western Ghats. A number of climbing animals have evolved gliding mechanisms and are
particularly characteristic of these forests. Among these are the flying squirrels. The other
characteristic species of the Western Ghats are the Nilgiri mongoose, the stripnecked
mongoose, the malabar civet and the spiny mouse.
The flora and fauna of these evergreen regions have not been fully explored. Being a
store house of a large variety of plants and animals, these forests represent one of the
richest gene pool resources of flora and fauna in the country. Though a large number of such
forests have not been destroyed for various plantation crops like rubber, cocoa, coffee etc.,
whatever virgin forests remain have to be specially protected as in the Silent Valley of
Kerala or the rich orchid belt of the north-eastern Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh and
Sikkim.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
The biggest reason for the current increase in extinctions is habitat loss. Destruction
of tropical forests, coral reefs, estuaries. Marshes, and other biologically rich ecosystems
threaten to eliminate thousands or even millions of species in a human-caused mass extinction
that could rival those of geologic history. By destroying habitat, we eliminate not only
prominent species but also many obscure ones of which we may not even be aware. Over
harvesting of food species is probably the most obvious way in which humans directly
destroy biological resources. There are many, historic examples of human disturbances of
natural systems. Once-fertile areas have become deserts because of unsound forestry, grazing,
and agricultural practices. Technology nm” makes it possible for us to destroy vast areas
even faster than in the past. Undoubtedly the greatest current losses in terms of biological
diversity and unique species occur when tropical moist forests are disrupted.
1. Main Causes of Threat to Species
It is well known now that several plant species have become extinct due to certain
natural phenomena, such as land upheavals, volcanic eruptions, glaciations, protracted periods
of rain or drought, spreading of desert lands, forest fires and eutrophication in the geological
past. While such natural processes in the past had no doubt led to the extinction of flora,
the resulting new environmental conditions had also resulted in the evolution and speciation
of new flora and migration of floral elements.
But, in recent times man with his anthropogenic associates and other factors or practices
such as fire or ‘slash and burn’ for shifting cultivation (also called as ‘jhum’ or ‘podu’
cultivation in India), grazing by cattle and by several other mechanical means, has suddenly
accelerated disastrous condition in natural ecosystems. Besides, commercial exploitation of
entire plants, roots, rhizomes, tubers bulbs seeds and fruits has been the prime cause of
depletion of more important wild economic plants throughout the world for lucrative financial
gains, in the trade which flourishes both by legal and illegal means Rauvolfia serpentina,
Coptis teeta, Dioscorea sp. and Podophylum hexandrum serve as good examples.
(i) Habitat Destruction
Deforestation has been one of the major causes for the depletion of wildlife. With the
increase in human population and the growing need for resources, forests were cleared or
for agricultural operations, for human habitation and for grazing their livestock. Technological
advance and human progress had a direct bearing on the exploitation of natural resources.
Forest trees were cut to yield timber for building houses, for making furniture and for
collecting wood as fuel. Industries made a heavy demand on forest resources such as wood
for paper- making, exploitation of gums and resins, mining. of forestland for mineral ores,
building materials, etc.
Habitat destruction thus has an adverse impact on wildlife as it leads to the loss of an
environment, which provides them food and breeding grounds or nesting sites to facilitate
rearing of their young ones. Wild animals are left with no alternative but to adapt, migrate
or perish. Widespread habitat loss all over the country has diminished the population of
many species, making them rare-and endangered. In our race for progress and prosperity
we have disturbed the delicate balance of Nature.
(ii) Hunting and Poaching
Uncontrolled hunting of wildlife for pleasure, food, furs. Skins, horns, tusks, etc. pose
a serious threat to the survival of wildlife. In India, the Cheetah was hunted to extinction.
The illegal trade in animal skins has been responsible for the destruction of a large number
of tigers, leopards, deer, fishing cat, crocodiles and snakes, as well as birds with beautiful
plumage. Elephants were hunted for ivory. The rhinoceros was killed for its horns because
of the superstitious belief that it contained aphrodisiac properties. There are laws in the
country to prevent such illegal trade, but unscrupulous elements, traders and exporters
often violate these. Added to this is the practice of trade in exotic mammals, birds and
reptiles and use of wild animals in biomedical research.
(iii) Pollution
Pollution of air, water and soil due to various industrial activities not only affect our
health, but the health and well being of animal population also. Industrial effluents one
reaching water bodies adversely affect aquatic life. Pesticides like DDT and Dieldrin are
very harmful. These have a major effect particularly sea birds and their eggs. Oil pollution
is another serious problem affecting the seas through leakage from cargo ships or accidents.
Besides there are other numerous factors that affect wildlife population, which are
mostly anthropogenic. Introduction of exotic species, unhealthy agricultural practices, diseases
introduced by domesticated animals, silting of rivers, floods and droughts are a few to name
some. These all have somehow contributed to the process of endangering animal species.
2. Man and Wildlife Conflict
Man by virtue of his nature is destructive and self-centred despite the fact that he is
known as social animal. Until he realizes the need of time no rules and regulations may
help. The exploitation of forests and wildlife or rare species for commercial purposes should
be stopped. A good tiger skin is worth more than five thousand rupees. The tusks of an
elephant and the skin of big cats also fetch a good prize. The horns of rhinoceros carry a
highly fancy prize. This high market value has lead to unlimited slaughter of these animals.
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
The Forest administration in India is more than 100 years old. Efforts to identify plant
species as a part of wildlife and to recognize the importance for providing special protection
to endangered plant species have so far been negligible. The extinction of certain attractive
animals stimulated efforts to protect fauna, but no special heed was given to flora. The word
‘Wildlife’ had till recently been considered synonymous with animal life and consequently,
conservations and naturalists have their attention only to conservation of animal species.
It was only in the year 1968 at an International Conference (UNESCO 1968) that the
problem of conservation of flora and fauna was appreciated and several recommendations
were made urging the International Biological Programme (IBP), .the International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources (IUCN) and various international and
national organizations to initiate studies in to the problems involved, particularly the problem
of protecting and preserving wild fauna and flora in their natural habitat/ecosystems
establishing nature reserves.
Later at the 10th General Meeting of the IUCN, the Survival Service Commission
reviewed the status of endangered species of plants and their habitats. The recent
promulgations of the United States Endangered Species Act (1973), the UK Wild Creatures
and Wild Plants Act. (I975), development of international conventions on conservations
(Wetlands Convention) and the setting up of Biological Records Centre of the Nature
Conservancy, UK, and threatened plants, orchids, cycads tree wide awakening of the need
for the conservations, preservation and protection of floras of the world.
According to the Volume 5 of Red Data Book on angiosperms started by the Survival
Service Commission of the IUCN in the year 1970 (Melville, 1970), it is estimated that out
of the total of three lakes (0.3 million) species of plants in the world, over 20,000 were in
the category of either endangered or vulnerable and threatened with extinction by the year
2000 A.D.The following categories of rare species have been recognized by the IUCN, mainly
based on (i) present distribution, (ii) decline in number of time, (iii) abundance and quality
of natural habitats, and (iv) biology and potential value of the species.
Endangered (E)
Species in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the casual factors
continue operating, included are species whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level
or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed to be in immediate
danger of extinction.
Vulnerable (V)
Species believed likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the
casual factors continue operating. Included are species, of which most or all the populations
are decreasing because of over-exploitation, extensive destruction of habitat or other
environmental, disturbance species with populations that have been seriously depleted and
whose ultimate security is not yet assured; and species with populations that are still
abundant but are under threat from serious adverse factors throughout their range.
Rare (R)
Species with, small world populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable,
but are at risk. These species are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or
habitats or thinly scattered over a more extensive range.
Threatened (T)
Threatened is used in the conservation context for species which are in one of the
categoriser Endangered, Vulnerable and Rare. Some species are marked as threatened
where it is known that they are Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but there is known that
they are Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but there is not enough information to say which
of these three categories is appropriate.
Out of Danger (O)
Species formerly included in one of the above categories, but which are now considered
relatively secure because effective conservation measures have been taken or the previous
threat to their survival has been removed.
Indeterminate (I)
Species that are suspected of belonging to one of the first three categories, but for which
insufficient information is currently available.
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Today most of us live in a socially and technologically evolved society where our exploitive
potential and knowledge of nature has increased academically. The problem is that our
contact with it has diminished morally. It may have diminished to such an extent as to be
dangerous to us and to the nature itself. Biodiversity is the vast array of all the species of
plants, animals, insects and the microorganisms inhabiting the earth either in the aquatic
or the terrestrial habitats. The human civilization depends directly or indirectly upon this
biodiversity for their very basic needs of survival–food, fodder, fuel, fertilizer, timber, liquor,
rubber, leather, medicines and several raw materials. This diversity’s the condition for the
long-term sustainability of the environment, continuity of life on earth and the maintenance
of its integrity.
Although our understanding of the earth’s organisms–its biological resources- is still
imperfect, there is no doubt that the abundance and diversity of living organisms provide
many benefits and make our world a beautiful and interesting place to live. Biodiversity is
generally described in terms of its 3 fundamental and hierarchically related levels of biological
organisms. These areGenetic diversity
It includes the genetic variations within species, both among geographically separated
populations and among individuals within single population.
Species diversity
It includes full range of species from micro organisms to giants and mammoth varieties
of plants and animals, e.g. single celled viruses and bacteria etc. and multi-cellular plants,
animals and fungi.
Ecosystems diversity
It studies variation in the biological communities in which species Jive, exist and
interact.
Because genes are parts of species, and the species make up ecosystems- the concept
of biodiversity reflects an interrelationship among its three components. Biodiversity is
distributed uniformly across the globe. It is substantially greater in some areas than in the
others. Generally, species diversity increases from the poles towards the tropics- for instance,
among the terrestrial systems, the tropical moist forests, which cover only 57% of the earth’s
land area, possess as much as over 50% of the world’s species.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is diminished or destroyed in a number of ways either by natural changes
or by human disruption. The loss of even a single species is considered as a tragedy as each
form of life is a natural storehouse of irreplaceable substances the genetic materials (Ehrlich
& Ehrlich, 1982). As species become extinct, the fine balance of nature is disturbed to great
extent. The loss of even a single species can alter a food chain/food web, i.e. ecosystem
disruption, and upset the delicate balance between one species that preys upon another.
Natural Causes
Species arise through processes of mutation, isolation, and natural selection. Evolution
can proceed gradually over millions of years or may occur in large jumps when new organisms
migrate into an area or when environmental conditions change rapidly. In a sense, species
that are replaced by their descendants are not completely lost. The much larger modern
horse, for instance, has replaced the tiny Hypohippus, but most of its genes probably still
survive in its distant offspring.
Human-Caused Extinction
Man has a long history of dependence on biological resource hence depletion of resources
is obvious. It has never been the pursuit of mankind to completely destroy other species, but
in a variety of ways through ignorance or carelessness, we have reduced biological abundance
and driven species into extinction. Man as a hunter in Stone Age may have been responsible
for the extermination of the “Mega fauna” of both America and Eurasia during the Pleistocene
era. Climatic change may have been partially or primarily responsible. Vast usage of bones
in Europe and Siberia provide enough evidence that our ancestors have hunted upon animals
mercilessly. The loss of species and ecosystems extracts a high price. The water, the air,
fertile soils and productive seas as a common resource are all products of healthy biological
systems. The scale of human impact on the global biodiversity is huge. It is considered that
man has disturbed his own life support system. Tropical forest areas or the world suffer a
great loss, which are disappearing at the rate of 17 million hectares (17 sq. kms.) every year
(UNEP report, 1992).
The estimation from the fossil record suggests that the average life of a species is about
4 million years. According to an estimate, if there are about 10 million species a year at a
moderate estimate, we are now likely to lose around 50,000 species a year over the next
decades. According to the IUCN Red Data Book, the following is a broad list of threatened
animals:
Table 4.1: List of Threatened Animals
Animal group No. of species
Mammals 507
Birds 1,029
Reptiles 169
Amphibians 57
Fish 713
Insects 1,083
Molluscs 409
Corals and sponges 154
Annelid worms 139
Crustaceans 126
In a large number of southern countries the seeds of biodiversity destructions were laid
during the colonial era. In India, for instance, large-scale commercial forestry started in
British colonial times speeded up the rate of forest exploitation for fodder, meat, milk and
coffee demand. Deforestation and biodiversity destruction to sustain life after independence
by our more recent ancestors added fuel to the fire. Our mental capabilities do not allow us
to accept the growing changing demand of time. We still experience a lot of dependence on
forest products especially for fuel wood. However, government has provided substitutes of
solar driven appliances for cooking and lighting. Still it has failed to decrease pressure on
wood resources.
Table 4.2. Direct and Indirect Impact of Humans on Biological Resources
Direct impact Indirect impact
Hunting and food Gathering Habitat destruction
Fishing Exotic species Introductions
Trade in Animal Products Diseases
Harvesting wild plants Pollution
Pet and scientific trade Genetic assimilation
Predator and pest control
1. Measuring Biodiversity
Diversity can be defined as the number of species found in a community. Hence,
biodiversity refers to the species richness of an area. Algorithms of biodiversity have been
developed to connote species diversity at different geographical scales as follows:
Alpha Diversity
It indicates the number of species in a single community. The index can be used to
compare the number of species in different ecosystem type.
Beta Diversity
It indicates the degree to which species composition changes along an environmental
gradient.
Gamma Diversity
It indicates the rate at which additional species are encountered as geographical
replacements within a habitat type in different localities.
2. Rio-geographic Classification of India
India has been classified into ten bio geographic zones by the Wildlife Institute of India
under the Government’s Bio-geographic Project Table 3.
Table 4.3: Bio-geographic Zones of India
S.No. Bio-geographic Zones Distribution
1. Trans- Himalaya Ladakh Mountains, Tibetan plateau.
2. Himalaya North-Western, Central, Western and Eastern
Himalayas
3. Desert Thar, Kachchh
4. Semi-arid Punjab plains
5. Arid Gujarat, Rajputana
6. Deccan Peninsula Central Highlands, Chhota Nagpur, Eastern Highlands,
Central Plateau, Deccan south
7. Gangetic Plain Upper and lower Gangetic plain
8. Coast West coast, East coast
9. North-East Brahmputra valley, North east hills
10. Island Andamans and Nicobar Group of Islands, Lakshwadeep
3. The Value of Biodiversity
Ecosystems and species provide an enormous range of goods and other services –
immediate as well as long term, material as well as spiritual and psychological – which are
vital to our well being. The values of the earth’s biological resources can broadly be classified
intoDirect Values
Consumptive and productive uses.
Food Resources: Grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, condiments, tea-coffee, tobacco, liquor,
oil from plant resources; and meat, fish, egg, milk (and milk products), honey, etc. from
animal resources.
Other Resources: Medicine, fuel, timber, household accessories, fodder, fiber, fertilizer,
wool, leather, paint, resin, wax, thatch. Ornamental plants, rubber, creams, silk, feathers,
decorative items, etc.
Indirect Values
Non-consumptive uses and options for the future.
1. Carbon fixing through photosynthesis, which provides the support system for species.
2. Pollination, gene flow, etc.
3. Maintaining water cycles, recharging ground water, protecting watersheds.
4. Buffering from climatic extreme conditions such as flood and drought;
5. Soil production and protection from erosion;
6. Maintaining essential nutrient cycles, e.g. carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen and others.
7. Absorbing and decomposing pollutants, organic wastes, pesticides, air and water
pollutants;
8. Regulating climate at both macro and micro levels;
9. Preserving recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific, educational, ethical and
historical values of natural environments.
(i) Consumptive Use. Man is mostly dependent on plant and animal resources for his’
dietary requirements. A major share of our food comes from domesticated crops
and animals. Still we derive major of food from wild species. A large section of
human population is dependent on food, which we gather from seas, and oceans
that is harvested from free roaming wild organisms. Seafood is rich in minerals and
vitamins and contains up to 60 percent of the protein. Unfortunately, deforestation,
hunting and clearing of forests, grazing and expansion of agricultural lands removes
potentially valuable food species and the wild ancestors of our domestic crops.
(ii) Productive Use. Trade and commerce industry is very largely dependent on forests.
Besides, timber, firewood, paper pulp, and other wood products, we get many valuable
commercial products from forests. Herbs of medicinal value. Rattan, cane, sisal,
rubber, pectins, resins, gums, tannins, vegetable oils, waxes, and essential oils are
among the products gathered in the wild form forest areas. Like Himalayan forests
serve as a storehouse of medicinal herbs, which are presently being used to cure
many diseases. Many wild species e.g. milkweeds, etc. are also being investigated
as a source of rubber, alkaloids, and other valuable organic chemicals.
(iii) Medicine. Many medicinal and aromatic plants are being exploited in the wild to
tap their potential for different ailment cure in the field of drug extraction e.g.
Hippophae rhamnoides, Ephedra Kerardiana. Dactylorrahiza hatageria etc. Besides,
they are being cultured in plantations and protected in wild to encourage in-situ
and ex-situ conservation viz. Valley of flowers, Rohtang in Kullu, Lahu & Spiti
Valley. Animal products are also sources of drugs, analgesics pharmaceuticals,
antibiotics, heart regulators, anticancer and ant parasite drugs, blood pressure
regulators, anticoagulants, enzymes, and hormones.
(iv) Ecological Benefits. Man cannot have control over nature in the wild. It can only
put “pressure on resources and pollute environment. Then what makes environment
act as a self-replenishing system with respect to resource generation and selfcleanliness. To answer this comes into picture the role of biological communities.
The processes of soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient
cycling, solar energy absorption, and management of biogeochemical and hydrological
are all beyond the scope of man’s control. Non-domestic plants, animals, and microbes
do this favor to mankind by maintaining ecological processes at no cost. These also
serve as a library of gene pool. Wild species of plants and animals exercise control
over disease-carrying organisms and in suppressing pests. Food chain explains how
nature keep a control over population of organisms wherein organisms of small size
and larger in number are consumed by organisms large in size and smaller in
number to next higher tropic level. Hence, preservation of natural areas and
conservation of wild species should be encouraged and practiced to restore the
biological wealth.
(v) Aesthetic Use Wild species of plants and animals have always appealed man’s .
psyche. Human society has evolved from his early habitat in the forests, which
abounds in flora and fauna. Till date his instinct to observe nature in the wild calls
him from socially and culturally an evolved society, as tourist from far and wide
places. Thousands of tourists visit national park, sanctuaries and forests throughout
the country and especially in mountainous areas. A glance of temperate grasslands
perhaps the most beautiful landscape pleases and comforts man. All domestic plants
have evolved from wild ancestors and food gathering is no longer a necessity for
man but still thousands enjoy hunting, fishing and other adventurous outdoor
activities that involve wild species. Such environment and playful exercise gives
man an opportunity to renew his pioneer skills, and be at mental ease after leading
a hectic day in today’s life. Man enjoys his surrounding by decorating it with
images of wild animals and plants.
(vi) Cultural Benefits. A particular species or community of organisms may have
emotional value for a group of people who feel that their identity is inextricably
linked to the natural components of the environment that shaped their culture.
This may be expressed as a religious value, or it may be a psychological need for
access to wildlife. In either case, we often place a high value on the preservation
of certain wild species.
(vii) Option Values. This refers to the use of various species for the benefit of mankind,
sometime in future. The hunt for various species under the scope of biotechnology.
is already underway for finding solutions to various environmental problems. The
environmental issues being addressed to be: pollution as a major problem, ways to
fight various disease viz., cancer, diabetes etc., AIDS and others.
4. Biodiversity at Global, National and Local levels
1.Global Initiatives for Biodiversity Assessment
The initiative for biodiversity assessment was taken long back in 1991 with the UNEP
Biodiversity Country Studies Project (consisting of bilateral and Global Environmental Facility
funded studies in developing countries) implemented in cooperation with donor countries
and UNDP. The preparation of it dates back to 1987. Nineteen studies have been completed
and several more are in the process of completion. The approach from gene to ecosystem was
initiated as a Research Agenda for Biodiversity, IUBS/SCOPE/ UNESCO, Paris (Sol brig,
1991). The agreed text of the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted by 101
governments in Nairobi in May 1992, signed by 159 governments and the European Union
at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio
de Janeiro in June 1992. At present 174 governments is party to this convention. Apart from
this Global Biodiversity Strategy (1992), Global biodiversity; Status of the Earth’s Living
Resources (1992), Caring for the Earth; A Strategy for Sustainable Living (1991), Global
Marine Biological Diversity: A Strategy for Building Conservation into Decision Making
(1993), Norway/UNEP Expert Conference on Biodiversity (1993) and From Genes to
Ecosystems: A Research Agenda for Biodiversity (1991) are the milestones on the international
biodiversity initiatives. Many more nations are engaged in developing their own National
Biodiversity Strategies. Global Biodiversity Assessment (UNEP, 1995) estimates the total
number of animal and plant species to be between 13 and 14 million. It further records that
so far only 1.75 million species have been described and studied. Ecosystem diversity has
not been even reasonably explored as yet. Hence, there seems to be wide gap of knowledge
at global, regional and local levels.
Till recent past biodiversity conservation was thought to be limited to saving genes,
species and habitats but the implementation revolutionary policies and more awareness has
led to the emergence of a framework based upon saving biodiversity, studying and most
importantly using it sustainable. Reforms in the field of forestry, agriculture, technology,
international trade agreement and watershed management is required. Biodiversity is directly
or indirectly related to masses (researchers, government agencies, non-government agencies
and private sectors) ‘at all levels of development. Since we depend upon biodiversity our
various activities can be linked to its usage and conservation. Therefore, trade, economics,
population, land tenure, intellectual property rights and resource consumption & waste are
all related to biodiversity conservation. Hence, its sustainable use can be promoted through
information, ethics, knowledge and awareness.
2. Levels of Action
Need for biodiversity conservation is realized by all nations of the world because their
lies common interest of masses. Most of the resources do not belong to an individual, a
nation or a continent. They are simply global. Each and every member on the earth has
equal right over it. To limit the loss of biodiversity globally 4 major steps have been realized
important at national, regional and local levels.
(i) Global Environment Facility (GEF)
World bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) established the GEF in 1900 on a three-year
pilot basis. The GEF is expected to commit $ 400 million for the biodiversity
conservation issue.
(ii) International Biodiversity Strategy Programme (IBSP)
World Resources Institute (WRI), World Conservation Union (WCU), UNEP together
with more than 40 Governmental and non-Governmental organizations have
prepared the framework to drastically reduce the loss of biodiversity. This would
serve mankind on a more sustainable basis.
(iii) Convention on Biological Diversity (COBD)
Under the aegis of UNEP, more than 100 nations gathered during Earth Summit at
Brazil. This was accomplished to workout a legal framework for—
Governing international financial support for biodiversity conservation,
• The identification of international conservation priorities and
• Technology transfer for conservation and use of biodiversity.
(iv) Agenda 21
Developed through a series of inter-Governmental preparatory meetings with input from
a variety of non-Governmental processes including the Biodiversity Strategy Programme—
AGENDA 21 provides a plan of action on a number of issues including biodiversity.
INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION
Lying at the junction of Agro-tropical, Euro-Asian and the Indo-Malayan biogeography
realms, India is a country of vast biodiversity in the world and quite a significant one all
over the globe. In fact, it is among the twelve “Mega diversity” countries in the world. India
is also a “Vavilov” centre of high crop genetic diversity–so named after the Russian agro
botanist N.I. Vavilov who identified about eight such centres around the world in the 1950s.
India, a mega-biodiversity country, while following the path of development, has been
sensitive to the needs of conservation. India’s strategies for conservation and sustainable
utilization of biodiversity in the past aimed at providing special status and protection to
biodiversity rich areas by declaring them as national parks. Wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere
reserves, ecologically fragile and sensitive areas. It has helped in reducing pressure from
reserve forests by alternative measures of fuel wood and fodder need satisfaction. by a
forestation of degraded areas and wastelands, creation of ex-suit conservation facilities such
as gene banks and eco-development. The challenges before India are not only to sustain the
efforts of the past but also further add to these efforts by involving people in the mission.
BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT: INITIATIVES IN INDIA
In a most recent attempt to map biogeographically regions, Rodgers and Pan war (1988)
attempted to define the biogeographically regions of India. The sub-continent has ten
biogeographically zones viz., Trans-Himalayan, Himalayan, Indian desert, Semi-Arid, Western
Ghats, Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic Plains, North East India, Islands and Coasts and not yet
defined zones for aquatic (freshwater and marine) ecosystems have been mapped. The Wildlife
Institute of India has converted these regions on Survey of India digital database.
India is rich in endemic flora and fauna. According to an estimate (Anon., 1983) about
30 per cent plant species are endemic to India. Areas rich in endemism are North Eastern
India, the Western Ghats and the North Western Himalayas. A small pocket of -local
endemism is also reported from Eastern Ghats (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). The
Project on Study, Survey and Conservation of Elidangered Plants (POSSCEF) has estimated
that about 3000-4000 plant species are under different degrees of threat (Nayar & Shastri,
1987). Recently, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has launched
a project viz., National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) which envisages the
assessment and stock taking of biodiversity related information at various levels, including
distribution of endemic and endangered species and site-specific threats. Key features of
this project include emphasis on decentralized planning and use of interdisciplinary working
groups to involve all sectors concerned with biodiversity conservation.
Table 4.4: Wild Animal Diversity in India
S.No. Class World India % (Age) Endemism
1. Mammals 4,231 372 8
2. Birds 8; 400 1,175 4
3. Reptiles 5,375 399 33
4. Amphibian 2,000 181 62
5. Fishes 23,400 1,693 —
6. Insects 8,00,000 60,000 —
7. Molluscs 1,00,000 5,000 —
Source: Wildlife Institute of India WII, (1993).
Table 4.5: Wild Plants Diversity in India
S.No. Flora World India % of Endemism
1. Angiosperm 2,50,000 15,000 6
2. Gymnosperm — 64 —
3. Pteridophytes — 1,022 —
4. Bryophytes — 2,584 —
5. Algae — 2,500 —
6. Fungi -— 23,000 —
7. Bacteria — 850 —
8. Lichens — 1,600 —
Source: Biodiversity in India, R.R. Rao (NBRI) Lucknow, 1984.
HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
Areas with rich biodiversity and exhibiting high levels of endemism, which are under
immediate threat of species extinction and habitat destruction, are recognized on priority
basis worldwide for conservation practices and are known as hot spots. 12 hot spots identified
world over represent 14% of world’s plant species in only 0.2% of its -total land surface. 12
mega diversity nations (Mexico, Columbia, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Madagascar, Indonesia.
Malaysia. India, China and Australia) contain 60-70 % of the world’s biodiversity. Out of the
total hot spots worldwide two lies in India. These are represented by North-eastern Himalayas
(Khasi jaintia hills and the lower Himalayan slopes embracing areas of Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura) and Western Ghats region in the south. These
fall under heavy rainfall zones.
The rain forests of the Western Ghats and the eastern Himalayas consist of very dense
and lofty trees with a multitude of species occurring in the same area. Hundreds of species
of trees can be identified in a hectare of land besides mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids,
lianas and vines, herbs shrubs and fungi that make up this. region the most diverse habitat.
Giant trees stretch up towards the sun. Buttress roots, anchored within the soil, support the
smooth straight trunks, which rise 30 mts. or more before branching out. The spreading
crowns effectively block outmost of the light from the light from the ground beneath.
Dipterocarpus sp. predominates in these forests and this type of vegetation is often called
Dipterocarpus forests.
1. North-east Himalayas
From the dense evergreen and semi-evergreen vegetation of the foothills in the Eastern.
Himalaya, the character of vegetation changes at altitudes of 1525 m to 1830 m. Qaks,
magnolias, laurels and birches covered with moss and ferns replace the sal, silk-cotton trees
and giant bamboos of the foothills. At about 2745 m to 3660 m one enters the coniferous
forest of pine, fir yew and junipers. There is undergrowth of scrubby Rhododendrons and
dwarfs bamboos. Due to high humidity and much higher rainfall, lichens, mosses, orchids
and other epiphytes cover the tree trunks. The animal life in the temperate region is
different from the western Himalaya and is characterized by the presence of Indo Chinese
fauna. The red panda, hog badgers, ferret badgers, crestless porcupines are typical species
of this area. Three kinds of goat antelopes also occur in the eastern Himalaya and are
relatives of the European chamois. Goral is a smaller goat antelope found throughout the
tract on rugged grassy slopes and on rocky grounds near the conifers forests.
2. Western Ghats
The Western Ghats and the central belt lying to the west of it, is a region of very high
rainfall and is characterized by evergreen vegetation, its flora and fauna being a kin to the
evergreen rain forest of north-eastern India. Among the macaques the lion tailed (Macaca
silenus) is one of the world’s most endangered primates, surviving in the evergreen forests
of the Western Ghats of south India, its total population is estimated to be about 800 only.
In the langur group, the nilgiri ‘Iangur’ (Presbvtis johni) is a multihabitat species occurring
in addition to the shoals, in the temperate evergreen forests above 1700 m altitude in the
Western Ghats. A number of climbing animals have evolved gliding mechanisms and are
particularly characteristic of these forests. Among these are the flying squirrels. The other
characteristic species of the Western Ghats are the Nilgiri mongoose, the stripnecked
mongoose, the malabar civet and the spiny mouse.
The flora and fauna of these evergreen regions have not been fully explored. Being a
store house of a large variety of plants and animals, these forests represent one of the
richest gene pool resources of flora and fauna in the country. Though a large number of such
forests have not been destroyed for various plantation crops like rubber, cocoa, coffee etc.,
whatever virgin forests remain have to be specially protected as in the Silent Valley of
Kerala or the rich orchid belt of the north-eastern Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh and
Sikkim.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
The biggest reason for the current increase in extinctions is habitat loss. Destruction
of tropical forests, coral reefs, estuaries. Marshes, and other biologically rich ecosystems
threaten to eliminate thousands or even millions of species in a human-caused mass extinction
that could rival those of geologic history. By destroying habitat, we eliminate not only
prominent species but also many obscure ones of which we may not even be aware. Over
harvesting of food species is probably the most obvious way in which humans directly
destroy biological resources. There are many, historic examples of human disturbances of
natural systems. Once-fertile areas have become deserts because of unsound forestry, grazing,
and agricultural practices. Technology nm” makes it possible for us to destroy vast areas
even faster than in the past. Undoubtedly the greatest current losses in terms of biological
diversity and unique species occur when tropical moist forests are disrupted.
1. Main Causes of Threat to Species
It is well known now that several plant species have become extinct due to certain
natural phenomena, such as land upheavals, volcanic eruptions, glaciations, protracted periods
of rain or drought, spreading of desert lands, forest fires and eutrophication in the geological
past. While such natural processes in the past had no doubt led to the extinction of flora,
the resulting new environmental conditions had also resulted in the evolution and speciation
of new flora and migration of floral elements.
But, in recent times man with his anthropogenic associates and other factors or practices
such as fire or ‘slash and burn’ for shifting cultivation (also called as ‘jhum’ or ‘podu’
cultivation in India), grazing by cattle and by several other mechanical means, has suddenly
accelerated disastrous condition in natural ecosystems. Besides, commercial exploitation of
entire plants, roots, rhizomes, tubers bulbs seeds and fruits has been the prime cause of
depletion of more important wild economic plants throughout the world for lucrative financial
gains, in the trade which flourishes both by legal and illegal means Rauvolfia serpentina,
Coptis teeta, Dioscorea sp. and Podophylum hexandrum serve as good examples.
(i) Habitat Destruction
Deforestation has been one of the major causes for the depletion of wildlife. With the
increase in human population and the growing need for resources, forests were cleared or
for agricultural operations, for human habitation and for grazing their livestock. Technological
advance and human progress had a direct bearing on the exploitation of natural resources.
Forest trees were cut to yield timber for building houses, for making furniture and for
collecting wood as fuel. Industries made a heavy demand on forest resources such as wood
for paper- making, exploitation of gums and resins, mining. of forestland for mineral ores,
building materials, etc.
Habitat destruction thus has an adverse impact on wildlife as it leads to the loss of an
environment, which provides them food and breeding grounds or nesting sites to facilitate
rearing of their young ones. Wild animals are left with no alternative but to adapt, migrate
or perish. Widespread habitat loss all over the country has diminished the population of
many species, making them rare-and endangered. In our race for progress and prosperity
we have disturbed the delicate balance of Nature.
(ii) Hunting and Poaching
Uncontrolled hunting of wildlife for pleasure, food, furs. Skins, horns, tusks, etc. pose
a serious threat to the survival of wildlife. In India, the Cheetah was hunted to extinction.
The illegal trade in animal skins has been responsible for the destruction of a large number
of tigers, leopards, deer, fishing cat, crocodiles and snakes, as well as birds with beautiful
plumage. Elephants were hunted for ivory. The rhinoceros was killed for its horns because
of the superstitious belief that it contained aphrodisiac properties. There are laws in the
country to prevent such illegal trade, but unscrupulous elements, traders and exporters
often violate these. Added to this is the practice of trade in exotic mammals, birds and
reptiles and use of wild animals in biomedical research.
(iii) Pollution
Pollution of air, water and soil due to various industrial activities not only affect our
health, but the health and well being of animal population also. Industrial effluents one
reaching water bodies adversely affect aquatic life. Pesticides like DDT and Dieldrin are
very harmful. These have a major effect particularly sea birds and their eggs. Oil pollution
is another serious problem affecting the seas through leakage from cargo ships or accidents.
Besides there are other numerous factors that affect wildlife population, which are
mostly anthropogenic. Introduction of exotic species, unhealthy agricultural practices, diseases
introduced by domesticated animals, silting of rivers, floods and droughts are a few to name
some. These all have somehow contributed to the process of endangering animal species.
2. Man and Wildlife Conflict
Man by virtue of his nature is destructive and self-centred despite the fact that he is
known as social animal. Until he realizes the need of time no rules and regulations may
help. The exploitation of forests and wildlife or rare species for commercial purposes should
be stopped. A good tiger skin is worth more than five thousand rupees. The tusks of an
elephant and the skin of big cats also fetch a good prize. The horns of rhinoceros carry a
highly fancy prize. This high market value has lead to unlimited slaughter of these animals.
ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
The Forest administration in India is more than 100 years old. Efforts to identify plant
species as a part of wildlife and to recognize the importance for providing special protection
to endangered plant species have so far been negligible. The extinction of certain attractive
animals stimulated efforts to protect fauna, but no special heed was given to flora. The word
‘Wildlife’ had till recently been considered synonymous with animal life and consequently,
conservations and naturalists have their attention only to conservation of animal species.
It was only in the year 1968 at an International Conference (UNESCO 1968) that the
problem of conservation of flora and fauna was appreciated and several recommendations
were made urging the International Biological Programme (IBP), .the International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources (IUCN) and various international and
national organizations to initiate studies in to the problems involved, particularly the problem
of protecting and preserving wild fauna and flora in their natural habitat/ecosystems
establishing nature reserves.
Later at the 10th General Meeting of the IUCN, the Survival Service Commission
reviewed the status of endangered species of plants and their habitats. The recent
promulgations of the United States Endangered Species Act (1973), the UK Wild Creatures
and Wild Plants Act. (I975), development of international conventions on conservations
(Wetlands Convention) and the setting up of Biological Records Centre of the Nature
Conservancy, UK, and threatened plants, orchids, cycads tree wide awakening of the need
for the conservations, preservation and protection of floras of the world.
According to the Volume 5 of Red Data Book on angiosperms started by the Survival
Service Commission of the IUCN in the year 1970 (Melville, 1970), it is estimated that out
of the total of three lakes (0.3 million) species of plants in the world, over 20,000 were in
the category of either endangered or vulnerable and threatened with extinction by the year
2000 A.D.The following categories of rare species have been recognized by the IUCN, mainly
based on (i) present distribution, (ii) decline in number of time, (iii) abundance and quality
of natural habitats, and (iv) biology and potential value of the species.
Endangered (E)
Species in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the casual factors
continue operating, included are species whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level
or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed to be in immediate
danger of extinction.
Vulnerable (V)
Species believed likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the
casual factors continue operating. Included are species, of which most or all the populations
are decreasing because of over-exploitation, extensive destruction of habitat or other
environmental, disturbance species with populations that have been seriously depleted and
whose ultimate security is not yet assured; and species with populations that are still
abundant but are under threat from serious adverse factors throughout their range.
Rare (R)
Species with, small world populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable,
but are at risk. These species are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or
habitats or thinly scattered over a more extensive range.
Threatened (T)
Threatened is used in the conservation context for species which are in one of the
categoriser Endangered, Vulnerable and Rare. Some species are marked as threatened
where it is known that they are Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but there is known that
they are Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare, but there is not enough information to say which
of these three categories is appropriate.
Out of Danger (O)
Species formerly included in one of the above categories, but which are now considered
relatively secure because effective conservation measures have been taken or the previous
threat to their survival has been removed.
Indeterminate (I)
Species that are suspected of belonging to one of the first three categories, but for which
insufficient information is currently available.
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